Role of enterocyte stearoyl-Co-A desaturase-1 in LDLR-null mice.

After crossing floxed stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (Scd1fl/fl) mice with LDL receptor-null (ldlr-/-) mice, and then Villin Cre (VilCre) mice, enterocyte Scd1 expression in Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/-/VilCre mice was reduced 70%. On Western diet (WD), Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/- mice gained more weight than Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/-/VilCre mice (P < 0.0023). On WD, jejunum levels of lysophosphatidylcholine (LysoPC) 18:1 and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) 18:1 were significantly less in Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/-/VilCre compared with Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/- mice (P < 0.0004 and P < 0.026, respectively). On WD, Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/-/VilCre mice compared with Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/- mice had lower protein levels of lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and myeloid differentiation factor-88 (MyD88) in enterocytes and plasma, and less dyslipidemia and systemic inflammation. Adding a concentrate of tomatoes transgenic for the apoA-I mimetic peptide 6F (Tg6F) to WD resulted in reduced enterocyte protein levels of LBP, CD14, TLR4, and MyD88 in Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/- mice similar to that seen in Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/-/VilCre mice. Adding LysoPC 18:1 to WD did not reverse the effects of enterocyte Scd1 knockdown. Adding LysoPC 18:1 (but not LysoPC 18:0) to chow induced jejunum Scd1 expression and increased dyslipidemia and plasma serum amyloid A and interleukin 6 levels in Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/- mice, but not in Scd1fl/fl/ldlr-/-/VilCre mice. We conclude that enterocyte Scd1 is partially responsible for LysoPC 18:1- and WD-induced dyslipidemia and inflammation in ldlr-/- mice.

Transgenic tomatoes expressing the 6F peptide and ezetimibe prevent diet-induced increases of IFN-ß and cholesterol 25-hydroxylase in jejunum.

Feeding LDL receptor (LDLR)-null mice a Western diet (WD) increased the expression of IFN-ß in jejunum as determined by quantitative RT-PCR (RT-qPCR), immunohistochemistry (IHC), and ELISA (all P < 0.0001). WD also increased the expression of cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (CH25H) as measured by RT-qPCR (P < 0.0001), IHC (P = 0.0019), and ELISA (P < 0.0001), resulting in increased levels of 25-hydroxycholesterol (25-OHC) in jejunum as determined by LC-MS/MS (P < 0.0001). Adding ezetimibe at 10 mg/kg/day or adding a concentrate of transgenic tomatoes expressing the 6F peptide (Tg6F) at 0.06% by weight of diet substantially ameliorated these changes. Adding either ezetimibe or Tg6F to WD also ameliorated WD-induced changes in plasma lipids, serum amyloid A, and HDL cholesterol. Adding the same doses of ezetimibe and Tg6F together to WD (combined formulation) was generally more efficacious compared with adding either agent alone. Surprisingly, adding ezetimibe during the preparation of Tg6F, but before addition to WD, was more effective than the combined formulation for all parameters measured in jejunum (P = 0.0329 to P < 0.0001). We conclude the following: i) WD induces IFN-ß, CH25H, and 25-OHC in jejunum; and ii) Tg6F and ezetimibe partially ameliorate WD-induced inflammation by preventing WD-induced increases in IFN-ß, CH25H, and 25-OHC.

Tg6F ameliorates the increase in oxidized phospholipids in the jejunum of mice fed unsaturated LysoPC or WD.

Mouse chow supplemented with lysophosphatidylcholine with oleic acid at sn-1 and a hydroxyl group at sn-2 (LysoPC 18:1) increased LysoPC 18:1 in tissue of the jejunum of LDL receptor (LDLR)-null mice by 8.9 ± 1.7-fold compared with chow alone. Western diet (WD) contained dramatically less phosphatidylcholine 18:1 or LysoPC 18:1 compared with chow, but feeding WD increased LysoPC 18:1 in the jejunum by 7.5 ± 1.4-fold compared with chow. Feeding LysoPC 18:1 or feeding WD increased oxidized phospholipids in the jejunum by 5.2 ± 3.0-fold or 8.6 ± 2.2-fold, respectively, in LDLR-null mice (P < 0.0004), and 2.6 ± 1.5-fold or 2.4 ± 0.92-fold, respectively, in WT C57BL/6J mice (P < 0.0001). Adding 0.06% by weight of a concentrate of transgenic tomatoes expressing the 6F peptide (Tg6F) decreased LysoPC 18:1 in the jejunum of LDLR-null mice on both diets (P < 0.0001), and prevented the increase in oxidized phospholipids in the jejunum in LDLR-null and WT mice on both diets (P < 0.008). Tg6F decreased inflammatory cells in the villi of the jejunum, decreased dyslipidemia, and decreased systemic inflammation in LDLR-null and WT mice on both diets. We conclude that Tg6F reduces diet-induced inflammation by reducing the content of unsaturated LysoPC and oxidized phospholipids in the jejunum of mice.

Source and role of intestinally derived lysophosphatidic acid in dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis.

We previously reported that i) a Western diet increased levels of unsaturated lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) in small intestine and plasma of LDL receptor null (LDLR(-/-)) mice, and ii) supplementing standard mouse chow with unsaturated (but not saturated) LPA produced dyslipidemia and inflammation. Here we report that supplementing chow with unsaturated (but not saturated) LPA resulted in aortic atherosclerosis, which was ameliorated by adding transgenic 6F tomatoes. Supplementing chow with lysophosphatidylcholine (LysoPC) 18:1 (but not LysoPC 18:0) resulted in dyslipidemia similar to that seen on adding LPA 18:1 to chow. PF8380 (a specific inhibitor of autotaxin) significantly ameliorated the LysoPC 18:1-induced dyslipidemia. Supplementing chow with LysoPC 18:1 dramatically increased the levels of unsaturated LPA species in small intestine, liver, and plasma, and the increase was significantly ameliorated by PF8380 indicating that the conversion of LysoPC 18:1 to LPA 18:1 was autotaxin dependent. Adding LysoPC 18:0 to chow increased levels of LPA 18:0 in small intestine, liver, and plasma but was not altered by PF8380 indicating that conversion of LysoPC 18:0 to LPA 18:0 was autotaxin independent. We conclude that i) intestinally derived unsaturated (but not saturated) LPA can cause atherosclerosis in LDLR(-/-) mice, and ii) autotaxin mediates the conversion of unsaturated (but not saturated) LysoPC to LPA.

Systemic inflammation, intestine, and paraoxonase-1.

Serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1) has been shown to act as an important guardian against cellular damage from oxidized lipids in low-density lipoprotein (LDL), plasma membrane, against toxic agents such as pesticide residues including organophosphates and against bacterial endotoxin. PON1 associated with circulating high-density lipoprotein (HDL) has the ability to prevent the generation of pro inflammatory oxidized phospholipids by reactive oxygen species. The activities of the HDL-associated PON1 and several other anti-inflammatory factors in HDL are in turn negatively regulated by these oxidized lipids. In rabbits, mice, and humans there appears to be an increase in the formation of these oxidized lipids during the acute phase response. This results in the association of acute phase proteins with HDL and inhibition of the HDL-associated PON1 that renders HDL pro inflammatory.In populations, low serum HDL-cholesterol is a risk factor for atherosclerosis and efforts are directed toward therapies to improve the quality and the relative concentrations of LDL and HDL. Apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) has been shown to reduce atherosclerotic lesions in laboratory animals. ApoA-I, however, is a large protein that is costly and needs to be administered parenterally. Our group has developed apoA-I mimetic peptides that are much smaller than apoA-I (18 amino acids long vs 243 in ApoA-I itself). These HDL mimetic peptides are much more effective in removing the oxidized phospholipids and other oxidized lipids. They improve LDL and HDL composition and function and reduce lesion formation in animal models of atherogenesis. Following is a brief description of some of the HDL mimetic peptides that can improve HDL and the effect of the peptide on PON1 activity.

Ambient ultrafine particles alter lipid metabolism and HDL anti-oxidant capacity in LDLR-null mice.

Exposure to ambient particulate matter (PM) is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. The redox-active ultrafine particles (UFPs) promote vascular oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. We hypothesized that UFPs modulated lipid metabolism and anti-oxidant capacity of high density lipoprotein (HDL) with an implication in atherosclerotic lesion size. Fat-fed low density lipoprotein receptor-null (LDLR⁻/⁻ mice were exposed to filtered air (FA) or UFPs for 10 weeks with or without administering an apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptide made of D-amino acids, D-4F. LDLR⁻/⁻ mice exposed to UFPs developed a reduced plasma HDL level (P < 0.01), paraoxonase activity (P < 0.01), and HDL anti-oxidant capacity (P < 0.05); but increased LDL oxidation, free oxidized fatty acids, triglycerides, serum amyloid A (P < 0.05), and tumor necrosis factor α (P < 0.05), accompanied by a 62% increase in the atherosclerotic lesion ratio of the en face aortic staining and a 220% increase in the cross-sectional lesion area of the aortic sinus (P < 0.001). D-4F administration significantly attenuated these changes. UFP exposure promoted pro-atherogenic lipid metabolism and reduced HDL anti-oxidant capacity in fat-fed LDLR⁻/⁻ mice, associated with a greater atherosclerotic lesion size compared with FA-exposed animals. D-4F attenuated UFP-mediated pro-atherogenic effects, suggesting the role of lipid oxidation underlying UFP-mediated atherosclerosis.

Transgenic 6F tomatoes act on the small intestine to prevent systemic inflammation and dyslipidemia caused by Western diet and intestinally derived lysophosphatidic acid.

We recently reported that levels of unsaturated lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) in the small intestine significantly correlated with the extent of aortic atherosclerosis in LDL receptor-null (LDLR⁻/⁻) mice fed a Western diet (WD). Here we demonstrate that WD increases unsaturated (but not saturated) LPA levels in the small intestine of LDLR⁻/⁻ mice and causes changes in small intestine gene expression. Confirmation of microarray analysis by quantitative RT-PCR showed that adding transgenic tomatoes expressing the apoA-I mimetic peptide 6F (Tg6F) to WD prevented many WD-mediated small intestine changes in gene expression. If instead of feeding WD, unsaturated LPA was added to chow and fed to the mice: i) levels of LPA in the small intestine were similar to those induced by feeding WD; ii) gene expression changes in the small intestine mimicked WD-mediated changes; and iii) changes in plasma serum amyloid A, total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL-cholesterol levels, and the fast-performance liquid chromatography lipoprotein profile mimicked WD-mediated changes. Adding Tg6F (but not control tomatoes) to LPA-supplemented chow prevented the LPA-induced changes. We conclude that: i) WD-mediated systemic inflammation and dyslipidemia may be in part due to WD-induced increases in small intestine LPA levels; and ii) Tg6F reduces WD-mediated systemic inflammation and dyslipidemia by preventing WD-induced increases in LPA levels in the small intestine.

A novel approach to oral apoA-I mimetic therapy.

Transgenic tomato plants were constructed with an empty vector (EV) or a vector expressing an apoA-I mimetic peptide, 6F. EV or 6F tomatoes were harvested, lyophilized, ground into powder, added to Western diet (WD) at 2.2% by weight, and fed to LDL receptor-null (LDLR(-/-)) mice at 45 mg/kg/day 6F. After 13 weeks, the percent of the aorta with lesions was 4.1 ± 4%, 3.3 ± 2.4%, and 1.9 ± 1.4% for WD, WD + EV, and WD + 6F, respectively (WD + 6F vs. WD, P = 0.0134; WD + 6F vs. WD + EV, P = 0.0386; WD + EV vs. WD, not significant). While body weight did not differ, plasma serum amyloid A (SAA), total cholesterol, triglycerides, and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) levels were less in WD + 6F mice; P < 0.0295. HDL cholesterol and paroxonase-1 activity (PON) were higher in WD + 6F mice (P = 0.0055 and P = 0.0254, respectively), but not in WD + EV mice. Plasma SAA, total cholesterol, triglycerides, LPA, and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (HETE) levels positively correlated with lesions (P < 0.0001); HDL cholesterol and PON were inversely correlated (P < 0.0001). After feeding WD + 6F: i) intact 6F was detected in small intestine (but not in plasma); ii) small intestine LPA was decreased compared with WD + EV (P < 0.0469); and iii) small intestine LPA 18:2 positively correlated with the percent of the aorta with lesions (P < 0.0179). These data suggest that 6F acts in the small intestine and provides a novel approach to oral apoA-I mimetic therapy.

High-density lipoprotein and 4F peptide reduce systemic inflammation by modulating intestinal oxidized lipid metabolism: novel hypotheses and review of literature.

Oxidized phospholipids are found in the vasculature of animal models of atherosclerosis, in human atherosclerotic lesions, and in other inflammatory diseases. Oxidized phospholipids cause vascular and nonvascular cells to initiate an inflammatory reaction. Metabolites of arachidonic acid, such as 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, can mimic some of the inflammatory properties of oxidized phospholipids. In vitro and in vivo normal high-density lipoprotein (HDL), normal apolipoprotein A-I, and apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptides, each likely acting in a different manner, prevent the inflammatory reaction characteristic of atherosclerosis, and this is associated with decreased levels of oxidized lipids in tissues and cells. HDL from animal models of atherosclerosis or from humans with atherosclerosis or from humans or animals with other chronic inflammatory diseases does not prevent the inflammatory reaction characteristic of atherosclerosis and may even enhance the inflammatory reaction. In mice and perhaps humans, ≈30% of the steady-state plasma HDL-cholesterol pool is derived from the small intestine. The metabolism of phospholipids by gut bacteria has been recently implicated in atherosclerosis in both mice and humans. Studies with apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptides suggest that the small intestine is a major tissue regulating systemic inflammation in mouse models of atherosclerosis and may be important for determining the functionality of HDL.

Apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) and apoA-I mimetic peptides inhibit tumor development in a mouse model of ovarian cancer.

We examined whether reduced levels of Apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) in ovarian cancer patients are causal in ovarian cancer in a mouse model. Mice expressing a human apoA-I transgene had (i) increased survival (P < 0.0001) and (ii) decreased tumor development (P < 0.01), when compared with littermates, following injection of mouse ovarian epithelial papillary serous adenocarcinoma cells (ID-8 cells). ApoA-I mimetic peptides reduced viability and proliferation of ID8 cells and cis-platinum-resistant human ovarian cancer cells, and decreased ID-8 cell-mediated tumor burden in C57BL/6J mice when administered subcutaneously or orally. Serum levels of lysophosphatidic acid, a well-characterized modulator of tumor cell proliferation, were significantly reduced (>50% compared with control mice, P < 0.05) in mice that received apoA-I mimetic peptides (administered either subcutaneously or orally), suggesting that binding and removal of lysophosphatidic acid is a potential mechanism for the inhibition of tumor development by apoA-I mimetic peptides, which may serve as a previously unexplored class of anticancer agents.

D-4F-mediated reduction in metabolites of arachidonic and linoleic acids in the small intestine is associated with decreased inflammation in low-density lipoprotein receptor-null mice.

To test the hypothesis that intestine is a major site of action for D-4F, LDLR(-/-) mice were fed a Western diet (WD) and administered the peptide subcutaneously (SQ) or orally. Plasma and liver D-4F levels were 298-fold and 96-fold higher, respectively, after SQ administration, whereas peptide levels in small intestine only varied by 1.66 ± 0.33-fold. Levels of metabolites of arachidonic and linoleic acids known to bind with high affinity to D-4F were significantly reduced in intestine, liver and hepatic bile to a similar degree whether administered SQ or orally. However, levels of 20-HETE, which is known to bind the peptide with low affinity, were unchanged. D-4F treatment reduced plasma serum amyloid A (SAA) and triglyceride levels (P < 0.03) and increased HDL-cholesterol levels (P < 0.04) similarly after SQ or oral administration. Plasma levels of metabolites of arachidonic and linoleic acids significantly correlated with SAA levels (P < 0.0001). Feeding 15-HETE in chow (without WD) significantly increased plasma SAA and triglyceride levels and decreased HDL-cholesterol and paraoxonase activity (P < 0.05), all of which were significantly ameliorated by SQ D-4F (P < 0.05). We conclude that D-4F administration reduces levels of free metabolites of arachidonic and linoleic acids in the small intestine and this is associated with decreased inflammation in LDL receptor deficient mice.

Intestine may be a major site of action for the apoA-I mimetic peptide 4F whether administered subcutaneously or orally.

To determine if the dose of peptide administered or the plasma level was more important, doses of 0.15, 0.45, 4.5, or 45 mg/kg/day of the peptide D-4F were administered orally or subcutaneously (SQ) to apoliptotein (apo)E null mice. Plasma levels of peptide were ∼1,000-fold higher when administered SQ compared with orally. Regardless of the route of administration, doses of 4.5 and 45 mg/kg significantly reduced plasma serum amyloid A (SAA) levels and the HDL inflammatory index (P < 0.0001); doses of 0.15 or 0.45 mg/kg did not. A dose of 45 mg/kg/day administered to apoE null mice on a Western diet reduced aortic atherosclerosis by ∼50% (P < 0.0009) whether administered orally or SQ and also significantly reduced plasma levels of SAA (P < 0.002) and lysophosphatidic acid (P < 0.0009). Remarkably, for each dose administered, the concentration and amount of peptide in the feces was similar regardless of whether the peptide was administered orally or SQ. We conclude: i) the dose of 4F administered and not the plasma level achieved determines efficacy; ii) the intestine may be a major site of action for the peptide regardless of the route of administration.

Treatment of patients with cardiovascular disease with L-4F, an apo-A1 mimetic, did not improve select biomarkers of HDL function.

L-4F, an apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) mimetic peptide (also known as APL180), was administered daily by either intravenous (IV) infusion for 7 days or by subcutaneous (SC) injection for 28 days in patients with coronary heart disease in two distinct clinical studies. L-4F was well tolerated at all doses tested. Despite achieving plasma levels (mean maximal plasma concentration of 2,907 ng/ml and 395 ng/ml, following IV infusion and SC injection, respectively), that were effective in previously published animal models, treatment with L-4F, as assessed by biomarkers of HDL function such as HDL-inflammatory index (HII), and paraoxonase activity, did not improve. Paradoxically, there was a 49% increase in high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) levels after seven IV infusions of 30 mg L-4F (P < 0.05; compared with placebo) and a trend for hs-CRP increase in subjects receiving 30 mg SC injection for 28 days. In a subsequent, ex vivo study, addition of L-4F at concentrations of 150, 375, or 1,000 ng/ml to plasma from subjects prior to L-4F treatment resulted in significant dose-dependent HII improvement. In conclusion, in vivo L-4F treatment, delivered by either SC injection or IV infusion, did not improve HDL functional biomarkers despite achieving plasma levels that improved identical biomarkers ex vivo and in animal models.

Enhancement by LDL of transfer of L-4F and oxidized lipids to HDL in C57BL/6J mice and human plasma.

The apoA-I mimetic peptide L-4F [(Ac-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2) synthesized from all L-amino acids] has shown potential for the treatment of a variety of diseases. Here, we demonstrate that LDL promotes association between L-4F and HDL. A 2- to 3-fold greater association of L-4F with human HDL was observed in the presence of human LDL as compared with HDL by itself. This association further increased when LDL was supplemented with the oxidized lipid 15S-hydroxy-5Z, 8Z, 11Z, 13E-eicosatetraenoic acid (15HETE). Additionally, L-4F significantly (P = 0.02) promoted the transfer of 15HETE from LDL to HDL. The transfer of L-4F from LDL to HDL was demonstrated both in vitro and in C57BL/6J mice. L-4F, injected into C57BL/6J mice, associated rapidly with HDL and was then cleared quickly from the circulation. Similarly, L-4F loaded onto human HDL and injected into C57BL/6J mice was cleared quickly with T(1/2) = 23.6 min. This was accompanied by a decline in human apoA-I with little or no effect on the mouse apoA-I. Based on these results, we propose that i) LDL promotes the association of L-4F with HDL and ii) in the presence of L-4F, oxidized lipids in LDL are rapidly transferred to HDL allowing these oxidized lipids to be acted upon by HDL-associated enzymes and/or cleared from the circulation.

L-4F alters hyperlipidemic (but not healthy) mouse plasma to reduce platelet aggregation.

UNLABELLED: Background and Purpose- Hyperlipidemia is associated with platelet hyperreactivity. We hypothesized that L-4F, an apolipoprotein A-I mimetic peptide, would inhibit platelet aggregation in hyperlipidemic mice. METHODS AND RESULTS: Injecting L-4F into apolipoprotein E (apoE)-null and low-density lipoprotein receptor-null mice resulted in a significant reduction in platelet aggregation in response to agonists; however, there was no reduction in platelet aggregation after injection of L-4F into wild-type (WT) mice. Consistent with these results, injection of L-4F into apoE-null mice prolonged bleeding time; the same result was not found in WT mice. Incubating L-4F in vitro with apoE-null platelet-rich plasma also resulted in decreased platelet aggregation. However, incubating washed platelets from either apoE-null or WT mice with L-4F did not alter aggregation. Compared with WT mice, unstimulated platelets from apoE-null mice contained significantly more 12-hydroxy 5,8,10,14-eicosatetraenoic acid, thromboxane A(2), and prostaglandins D(2) and E(2). In response to agonists, platelets from L-4F-treated apoE-null mice formed significantly less thromboxane A(2), prostaglandins D(2) and E(2), and 12-hydroxy 5,8,10,14-eicosatetraenoic acid. CONCLUSIONS: By binding plasma-oxidized lipids that cause platelet hyperreactivity in hyperlipidemic mice, L-4F decreases platelet aggregation.

The effect of HDL mimetic peptide 4F on PON1.

Several lines of evidence indicate that serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1) acts as an important guardian against cellular damage from oxidized lipids in plasma membrane, in low-density lipoprotein (LDL), against bacterial endotoxin and against toxic agents such as pesticide residues including organophosphates. In circulation, the high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-associated PON1 has the ability to prevent the formation of proinflammatory oxidized phospholipids. These oxidized phospholipids negatively regulate the activities of the HDL-associated PON1 and several other anti-inflammatory factors in HDL. During the acute phase response in rabbits, mice, and humans, there appears to be an increase in the formation of these oxidized lipids that results in the inhibition of the HDL-associated PON1 and an association of acute phase proteins with HDL that renders HDL proinflammatory. Low serum HDL is a risk factor for atherosclerosis and attempts are directed toward therapies to improve the quality and the relative concentrations of LDL and HDL. Apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) has been shown to reduce atherosclerotic lesions in laboratory animals. ApoA-I, however, is a large protein and needs to be administered parenterally, and it is costly. We have developed apoA-I mimetic peptides that are much smaller than apoA-I, and much more effective in removing the oxidized phospholipids and other oxidized lipids. These mimetic peptides improve LDL and HDL composition and function and reduce lesion formation in animal models of atherogenesis. Following is a brief description of some of the HDL mimetic peptides that can improve HDL and the effect of the peptide on PON1 activity.

A novel method for oral delivery of apolipoprotein mimetic peptides synthesized from all L-amino acids.

Administered subcutaneously, D-4F or L-4F are equally efficacious, but only D-4F is orally efficacious because of digestion of L-4F by gut proteases. Orally administering niclosamide (a chlorinated salicylanilide used as a molluscicide, antihelminthic, and lampricide) in temporal proximity to oral L-4F (but not niclosamide alone) in apoE null mice resulted in significant improvement (P < 0.001) in the HDL-inflammatory index (HII), which measures the ability of HDL to inhibit LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity in endothelial cell cultures. Oral administration of L-[113-122]apoJ with niclosamide also resulted in significant improvement (P < 0.001) in HII. Oral administration of niclosamide and L-4F together with pravastatin to female apoE null mice at 9.5 months of age for six months significantly reduced aortic sinus lesion area (P = 0.02), en face lesion area (P = 0.033), and macrophage lesion area (P = 0.02) compared with pretreatment, indicating lesion regression. In contrast, lesions were significantly larger in mice receiving only niclosamide and pravastatin or L-4F and pravastatin (P < 0.001). In vitro niclosamide and L-4F tightly associated rendering the peptide resistant to trypsin digestion. Niclosamide itself did not inhibit trypsin activity. The combination of niclosamide with apolipoprotein mimetic peptides appears to be a promising method for oral delivery of these peptides.

Oral small peptides render HDL antiinflammatory in mice and monkeys and reduce atherosclerosis in ApoE null mice.

A peptide containing only 4 amino acid residues (KRES) that is too small to form an amphipathic helix, reduced lipoprotein lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH), increased paraoxonase activity, increased plasma HDL-cholesterol levels, rendered HDL antiinflammatory, and reduced atherosclerosis in apoE null mice. KRES was orally effective when synthesized from either L or D-amino acids suggesting that peptide-protein interactions were not required. Remarkably, changing the order of 2 amino acids (from KRES to KERS) resulted in the loss of all biologic activity. Solubility in ethyl acetate and interaction with lipids, as determined by differential scanning calorimetry, indicated significant differences between KRES and KERS. Negative stain electron microscopy showed that KRES formed organized peptide-lipid structures whereas KERS did not. Another tetrapeptide FREL shared many of the physical-chemical properties of KRES and was biologically active in mice and monkeys when synthesized from either L- or D-amino acids. After oral administration KRES and FREL were found associated with HDL whereas KERS was not. We conclude that the ability of peptides to interact with lipids, remove LOOH and activate antioxidant enzymes associated with HDL determines their antiinflammatory and antiatherogenic properties regardless of their ability to form amphipathic helixes.

Ambient Ultrafine Particle Ingestion Alters Gut Microbiota in Association with Increased Atherogenic Lipid Metabolites.

Ambient particulate matter (PM) exposure is associated with atherosclerosis and inflammatory bowel disease. Ultrafine particles (UFP, dp < 0.1-0.2 µm) are redox active components of PM. We hypothesized that orally ingested UFP promoted atherogenic lipid metabolites in both the intestine and plasma via altered gut microbiota composition. Low density lipoprotein receptor-null (Ldlr-/-) mice on a high-fat diet were orally administered with vehicle control or UFP (40 µg/mouse/day) for 3 days a week. After 10 weeks, UFP ingested mice developed macrophage and neutrophil infiltration in the intestinal villi, accompanied by elevated cholesterol but reduced coprostanol levels in the cecum, as well as elevated atherogenic lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC 18:1) and lysophosphatidic acids (LPAs) in the intestine and plasma. At the phylum level, Principle Component Analysis revealed significant segregation of microbiota compositions which was validated by Beta diversity analysis. UFP-exposed mice developed increased abundance in Verrocomicrobia but decreased Actinobacteria, Cyanobacteria, and Firmicutes as well as a reduced diversity in microbiome. Spearman's analysis negatively correlated Actinobacteria with cecal cholesterol, intestinal and plasma LPC18:1, and Firmicutes and Cyanobacteria with plasma LPC 18:1. Thus, ultrafine particles ingestion alters gut microbiota composition, accompanied by increased atherogenic lipid metabolites. These findings implicate the gut-vascular axis in a atherosclerosis model.

D-4F and statins synergize to render HDL antiinflammatory in mice and monkeys and cause lesion regression in old apolipoprotein E-null mice.

OBJECTIVE: We tested for synergy between pravastatin and D-4F by administering oral doses of each in combination that were predetermined to be ineffective when given as single agents. METHODS AND RESULTS: The combination significantly increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol levels, apolipoprotein (apo)A-I levels, paraoxonase activity, rendered HDL antiinflammatory, prevented lesion formation in young (79% reduction in en face lesion area; P<0.0001) and caused regression of established lesions in old apoE null mice (ie, mice receiving the combination for 6 months had lesion areas that were smaller than those before the start of treatment (P=0.019 for en face lesion area; P=0.004 for aortic root sinus lesion area). After 6 months of treatment with the combination, en face lesion area was 38% of that in mice maintained on chow alone; P<0.00004) with a 22% reduction in macrophage content in the remaining lesions (P=0.001), indicating an overall reduction in macrophages of 79%. The combination increased intestinal apoA-I synthesis by 60% (P=0.011). In monkeys, the combination also rendered HDL antiinflammatory. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the combination of a statin and an HDL-based therapy may be a particularly potent treatment strategy.