BET inhibition triggers antitumor immunity by enhancing MHC class I expression in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.

BET inhibition has been shown to have a promising antitumor effect in multiple tumors. However, the impact of BET inhibition on antitumor immunity was still not well documented in HNSCC. In this study, we aim to assess the functional role of BET inhibition in antitumor immunity and clarify its mechanism. We show that BRD4 is highly expressed in HNSCC and inversely correlated with the infiltration of CD8+ T cells. BET inhibition potentiates CD8+ T cell-based antitumor immunity in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, BRD4 acts as a transcriptional suppressor and represses the expression of MHC class I molecules by recruiting G9a. Pharmacological inhibition or genetic depletion of BRD4 potently increases the expression of MHC class I molecules in the absence and presence of IFN-γ. Moreover, compared to PD-1 blocking antibody treatment or JQ1 treatment individually, the combination of BET inhibition with anti-PD-1 antibody treatment significantly enhances the antitumor response in HNSCC. Taken together, our data unveil a novel mechanism by which BET inhibition potentiates antitumor immunity via promoting the expression of MHC class I molecules and provides a rationale for the combination of ICBs with BET inhibitors for HNSCC treatment.

Innate immune signaling in Drosophila shifts anabolic lipid metabolism from triglyceride storage to phospholipid synthesis to support immune function.

During infection, cellular resources are allocated toward the metabolically-demanding processes of synthesizing and secreting effector proteins that neutralize and kill invading pathogens. In Drosophila, these effectors are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that are produced in the fat body, an organ that also serves as a major lipid storage depot. Here we asked how activation of Toll signaling in the larval fat body perturbs lipid homeostasis to understand how cells meet the metabolic demands of the immune response. We find that genetic or physiological activation of fat body Toll signaling leads to a tissue-autonomous reduction in triglyceride storage that is paralleled by decreased transcript levels of the DGAT homolog midway, which carries out the final step of triglyceride synthesis. In contrast, Kennedy pathway enzymes that synthesize membrane phospholipids are induced. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed elevated levels of major phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine species in fat bodies with active Toll signaling. The ER stress mediator Xbp1 contributed to the Toll-dependent induction of Kennedy pathway enzymes, which was blunted by deleting AMP genes, thereby reducing secretory demand elicited by Toll activation. Consistent with ER stress induction, ER volume is expanded in fat body cells with active Toll signaling, as determined by transmission electron microscopy. A major functional consequence of reduced Kennedy pathway induction is an impaired immune response to bacterial infection. Our results establish that Toll signaling induces a shift in anabolic lipid metabolism to favor phospholipid synthesis and ER expansion that may serve the immediate demand for AMP synthesis and secretion but with the long-term consequence of insufficient nutrient storage.

FOSL1 promotes metastasis of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma through super-enhancer-driven transcription program.

Previously, we discovered that FOSL1 facilitates the metastasis of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cancer stem cells in a spontaneous mouse model. However, the molecular mechanisms remained unclear. Here, we demonstrated that FOSL1 serves as the dominant activating protein 1 (AP1) family member and is significantly upregulated in HNSCC tumor tissues and correlated with metastasis of HNSCC. Mechanistically, FOSL1 exerts its function in promoting tumorigenicity and metastasis predominantly via selective association with Mediators to establish super-enhancers (SEs) at a cohort of cancer stemness and pro-metastatic genes, such as SNAI2 and FOSL1 itself. Depletion of FOSL1 led to disruption of SEs and expression inhibition of these key oncogenes, which resulted in the suppression of tumor initiation and metastasis. We also revealed that the abundance of FOSL1 is positively associated with the abundance of SNAI2 in HNSCC and the high expression levels of FOSL1 and SNAI2 are associated with short overall disease-free survival. Finally, the administration of the FOSL1 inhibitor SR11302 significantly suppressed tumor growth and lymph node metastasis of HNSCC in a patient-derived xenograft model. These findings indicate that FOSL1 is a master regulator that promotes the metastasis of HNSCC through a SE-driven transcription program that may represent an attractive target for therapeutic interventions.

Novel PROTAC probes targeting KDM3 degradation to eliminate colorectal cancer stem cells through inhibition of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling.

It has been demonstrated that the KDM3 family of histone demethylases (KDM3A and KDM3B) epigenetically control the functional properties of colorectal cancer stem cells (CSCs) through Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. Meanwhile, a broad-spectrum histone demethylase inhibitor, IOX1, suppresses Wnt-induced colorectal tumorigenesis predominantly through inhibiting the enzymatic activity of KDM3. In this work, several cereblon (CRBN)-recruiting PROTACs with various linker lengths were designed and synthesized using IOX1 as a warhead to target KDM3 proteins for degradation. Two of the synthesized PROTACs demonstrated favorable degradation profile and selectivity towards KDM3A and KDM3B. Compound 4 demonstrated favorable in vitro metabolic profile in liver enzymes as well as no hERG-associated cardiotoxicity. Compound 4 also showed dramatic ability in suppressing oncogenic Wnt signaling to eliminate colorectal CSCs and inhibit tumor growth, with around 10- to 35-fold increased potency over IOX1. In summary, this study suggests that PROTACs provide a unique molecular tool for the development of novel small molecules from the IOX1 skeleton for selective degradation of KDM3 to eliminate colorectal CSCs via suppressing oncogenic Wnt signaling.

Type I gamma phosphatidylinositol phosphate 5-kinase i5 controls cell sensitivity to interferon.

The interferon signaling pathway is critical for host defense by serving diverse functions in both innate and adaptive immune responses. Here, we show that type I gamma phosphatidylinositol phosphate 5-kinase i5 (PIPKIγi5), an enzyme that synthesizes phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PI4,5P2), controls the sensitivity to interferon in both human and mouse cells. PIPKIγi5 directly binds to the interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) downstream effector signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), which suppresses the STAT1 dimerization, IFN-γ-induced STAT1 nuclear translocation, and transcription of IFN-γ-responsive genes. Depletion of PIPKIγi5 significantly enhances IFN-γ signaling and strengthens an antiviral response. In addition, PIPKIγi5-synthesized PI4,5P2 can bind to STAT1 and promote the PIPKIγi5-STAT1 interaction. Similar to its interaction with STAT1, PIPKIγi5 is capable of interacting with other members of the STAT family, including STAT2 and STAT3, thereby suppressing the expression of genes mediated by these transcription factors. These findings identify the function of PIPKIγi5 in immune regulation.

CYTOR Facilitates Formation of FOSL1 Phase Separation and Super Enhancers to Drive Metastasis of Tumor Budding Cells in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma.

Tumor budding (TB) is a small tumor cell cluster with highly aggressive behavior located ahead of the invasive tumor front. However, the molecular and biological characteristics of TB and the regulatory mechanisms governing TB phenotypes remain unclear. This study reveals that TB exhibits a particular dynamic gene signature with stemness and partial epithelial-mesenchymal transition (p-EMT). Importantly, nuclear expression of CYTOR is identified to be the key regulator governing stemness and the p-EMT phenotype of TB cells, and targeting CYTOR significantly inhibits TB formation, tumor growth and lymph node metastasis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Mechanistically, CYTOR promotes tumorigenicity and metastasis of TB cells by facilitating the formation of FOSL1 phase-separated condensates to establish FOSL1-dependent super enhancers (SEs). Depletion of CYTOR leads to the disruption of FOSL1-dependent SEs, which results in the inactivation of cancer stemness and pro-metastatic genes. In turn, activation of FOSL1 promotes the transcription of CYTOR. These findings indicate that CYTOR is a super-lncRNA that controls the stemness and metastasis of TB cells through facilitating the formation of FOSL1 phase separation and SEs, which may be an attractive target for therapeutic interventions in HNSCC.

P. gingivalis Infection Upregulates PD-L1 Expression on Dendritic Cells, Suppresses CD8+ T-cell Responses, and Aggravates Oral Cancer.

Accumulating evidence shows that PD-L1 expression on dendritic cells (DC) is critical for cancer immunotherapy and that Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg) colonization aggravates the progression of upper gastrointestinal cancers. However, the effects of Pg infection on PD-L1 expression on DCs and related immune consequences in the infection milieu of oral cancer remain unexplored. Here, we found that Pg infection robustly enhanced PD-L1 expression on DCs in a gingipain-dependent manner in cultured cell and systemic infection assays. Pg infection suppressed antigen-specific CD8+ T cells through upregulation of PD-L1 expression on ovalbumin (OVA)-pulsed DCs. This suppression was manifested by decreased IFNγ, perforin, granzyme B, and CD107a. Further analysis showed that Pg drastically reduced CD8+ T cells' ability to lyse OVA-pulsed target cells. Additionally, Pg infection increased the phosphorylation of Akt and STAT3, leading to a significant increase in PD-L1 expression. This was substantiated by using siRNA, overexpression plasmids, and pharmacologic inhibitors. Consistent with the in vitro observations, in a syngeneic mouse oral cancer model, Pg infection significantly enhanced PD-L1 expression on DCs from intratumoral tissues and cervical lymph nodes and exacerbated oral cancer progression, whereas a Pg lysine-specific, gingipain-defective mutant failed to do so. These influences of Pg were largely diminished when tumor cells were pretreated with antibiotics or a STAT3 inhibitor. Therefore, we demonstrated that Pg infection upregulates PD-L1 expression on DCs through Akt-STAT3 signaling, suppresses CD8+ T-cell cytotoxicity, and aggravates oral cancer growth, suggesting targeting Pg, and/or its mediated signaling, could be a therapeutic strategy to improve the efficacy of checkpoint blockade immunotherapy.

Electromagnetic interactions in regulations of cell behaviors and morphogenesis.

Emerging evidence indicates that the cellular electromagnetic field regulates the fundamental physics of cell biology. The electromagnetic oscillations and synchronization of biomolecules triggered by the internal and external pulses serve as the physical basis of the cellular electromagnetic field. Recent studies have indicated that centrosomes, a small organelle in eukaryotic cells that organize spindle microtubules during mitosis, also function as a nano-electronic generator in cells. Additionally, cellular electromagnetic fields are defined by cell types and correlated to the epigenetic status of the cell. These interactions between tissue-specific electromagnetic fields and chromatin fibers of progenitor cells regulate cell differentiation and organ sizes. The same mechanism is implicated in the regulation of tissue homeostasis and morphological adaptation in evolution. Intercellular electromagnetic interactions also regulate the migratory behaviors of cells and the morphogenesis programs of neural circuits. The process is closely linked with centrosome function and intercellular communication of the electromagnetic fields of microtubule filaments. Clearly, more and more evidence has shown the importance of cellular electromagnetic fields in regulatory processes. Furthermore, a detailed understanding of the physical nature of the inter- and intracellular electromagnetic interactions will better our understanding of fundamental biological questions and a wide range of biological processes.

IOX1 Suppresses Wnt Target Gene Transcription and Colorectal Cancer Tumorigenesis through Inhibition of KDM3 Histone Demethylases.

Epigenetic activation of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling plays a critical role in Wnt-induced tumorigenesis, notably in colorectal cancers. KDM3 and KDM4 histone demethylases have been reported to promote oncogenic Wnt signaling through demethylation of H3K9 on Wnt target gene promoters and are suggested to be potential therapeutic targets. However, potent inhibitors for these regulators are still not available. In addition, which family is most responsible for activation of Wnt target genes and Wnt-induced oncogenesis is not well documented, specifically in colorectal cancer. In this study, we characterized the functional redundancy and differences between KDM3 and KDM4 in regard to regulating Wnt signaling. Our data suggest that KDM3 may play a more essential role than KDM4 in regulating oncogenic Wnt signaling in human colorectal cancer. We also identified that IOX1, a known histone demethylase inhibitor, significantly suppresses Wnt target gene transcription and colorectal cancer tumorigenesis. Mechanistically, IOX1 inhibits the enzymatic activity of KDM3 by binding to the Jumonji C domain and thereby preventing the demethylation of H3K9 on Wnt target gene promoters. Taken together, our data not only identified the critical mechanisms by which IOX1 suppressed Wnt/ß-catenin signaling and colorectal cancer tumorigenesis through inhibition of KDM3, but also suggested that IOX1 may represent an attractive small molecule lead for future drug design and discovery.

Sorting nexin 6 interacts with Cullin3 and regulates programmed death ligand 1 expression.

Programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) is critical for the ability of cancer cells to evade attacks by the host immune system. However, the molecular mechanisms controlling PD-L1 expression have not been fully understood. Here, we demonstrate that sorting nexin 6 (SNX6) is a novel regulator of PD-L1 expression. Knockdown of SNX6 in cancer cells significantly decreases PD-L1 protein levels. In contrast, loss of SNX6 does not reduce PD-L1 mRNA levels. Instead, SNX6 interacts with Cullin3, an E3 ubiquitin ligase responsible for PD-L1 ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. By binding with Cullin3, SNX6 decreases the interaction between the adaptor protein speckle-type POZ protein and Cullin3, which in turn downregulates Cullin3-mediated PD-L1 ubiquitination. This research reveals a novel molecular nexus in modulating PD-L1.

A Super-Enhancer Driven by FOSL1 Controls miR-21-5p Expression in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma.

MiR-21-5p is one of the most common oncogenic miRNAs that is upregulated in many solid cancers by inhibiting its target genes at the posttranscriptional level. However, the upstream regulatory mechanisms of miR-21-5p are still not well documented in cancers. Here, we identify a super-enhancer associated with the MIR21 gene (MIR21-SE) by analyzing the MIR21 genomic regulatory landscape in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). We show that the MIR21-SE regulates miR-21-5p expression in different HNSCC cell lines and disruption of MIR21-SE inhibits miR-21-5p expression. We also identified that a key transcription factor, FOSL1 directly controls miR-21-5p expression by interacting with the MIR21-SE in HNSCC. Moreover, functional studies indicate that restoration of miR-21-5p partially abrogates FOSL1 depletion-mediated inhibition of cell proliferation and invasion. Clinical studies confirmed that miR-21-5p expression is positively correlated with FOSL1 expression. These findings suggest that FOSL1-SE drives miR-21-5p expression to promote malignant progression of HNSCC.