Physiology, Pathophysiology and Clinical Relevance of D-Amino Acids Dynamics: From Neurochemistry to Pharmacotherapy.

Over three decades ago, two independent groups of investigators identified free D-aspartic and later D-serine in specific brain nuclei and endocrine glands. This finding revealed a novel, non-proteinogenic role of these molecules. Moreover, the finding that aged proteins from the human eye crystallin, teeth, bone, blood vessels or the brain incorporate D-aspartic acids to specific primary protein sequences fostered the hypothesis that aging might be related to D-amino acid isomerization of body proteins. The experimental confirmation that schizophrenia and neurodegenerative diseases modify plasma free D-amino acids or tissue levelsnurtured the opportunity of using D-amino acids as therapeutic agents for several disease treatments, a strategy that prompted the successful current application of D-amino acids to human medicine.

Hybrid QM/MM Simulations Confirm Zn(II) Coordination Sphere That Includes Four Cysteines from the P2 × 4R Head Domain.

To ascertain the role of Zn(II) as an allosteric modulator on P2X4R, QM/MM molecular dynamic simulations were performed on the WT and two P2X4R mutants suggested by previous electrophysiological data to affect Zn(II) binding. The Gibbs free energy for the reduction of the putative P2X4R Zn(II) binding site by glutathione was estimated at -22 kcal/mol. Simulations of the WT P2X4R head domain revealed a flexible coordination sphere dominated by an octahedral geometry encompassing C126, N127, C132, C149, C159 and a water molecule. The C132A mutation disrupted the metal binding site, leading to a coordination sphere with a majority of water ligands, and a displacement of the metal ion towards the solvent. The C132A/C159A mutant exhibited a tendency towards WT-like stability by incorporating the R148 backbone to the coordination sphere. Thus, the computational findings agree with previous experimental data showing Zn(II) modulation for the WT and C132A/C159A variants, but not for the C132A mutant. The results provide molecular insights into the nature of the Zn(II) modulation in P2X4R, and the effect of the C132A and C132A/C159A mutations, accounting for an elusive modulation mechanism possibly occurring in other extracellular or membrane protein.

New Insights of the Zn(II)-Induced P2 × 4R Positive Allosteric Modulation: Role of Head Receptor Domain SS2/SS3, E160 and D170.

P2 × 4R is allosterically modulated by Zn(II), and despite the efforts to understand the mechanism, there is not a consensus proposal; C132 is a critical amino acid for the Zn(II) modulation, and this residue is located in the receptor head domain, forming disulfide SS3. To ascertain the role of the SS2/SS3 microenvironment on the rP2 × 4R Zn(II)-induced allosteric modulation, we investigated the contribution of each individual SS2/SS3 cysteine plus carboxylic acid residues E118, E160, and D170, located in the immediate vicinity of the SS2/SS3 disulfide bonds. To this aim, we combined electrophysiological recordings with protein chemical alkylation using thiol reagents such as N-ethylmaleimide or iodoacetamide, and a mutation of key amino acid residues together with P2 × 4 receptor bioinformatics. P2 × 4R alkylation in the presence of the metal obliterated the allosteric modulation, a finding supported by the site-directed mutagenesis of C132 and C149 by a corresponding alanine. In addition, while E118Q was sensitive to Zn(II) modulation, the wild type receptor, mutants E160Q and D170N, were not, suggesting that these acid residues participate in the modulatory mechanism. Poisson-Boltzmann analysis indicated that the E160Q and D170N mutants showed a shift towards more positive electrostatic potential in the SS2/SS3 microenvironment. Present results highlight the role of C132 and C149 as putative Zn(II) ligands; in addition, we infer that acid residues E160 and D170 play a role attracting Zn(II) to the head receptor domain.

Activation and regulation of purinergic P2X receptor channels.

Mammalian ATP-gated nonselective cation channels (P2XRs) can be composed of seven possible subunits, denoted P2X1 to P2X7. Each subunit contains a large ectodomain, two transmembrane domains, and intracellular N and C termini. Functional P2XRs are organized as homomeric and heteromeric trimers. This review focuses on the binding sites involved in the activation (orthosteric) and regulation (allosteric) of P2XRs. The ectodomains contain three ATP binding sites, presumably located between neighboring subunits and formed by highly conserved residues. The detection and coordination of three ATP phosphate residues by positively charged amino acids are likely to play a dominant role in determining agonist potency, whereas an AsnPheArg motif may contribute to binding by coordinating the adenine ring. Nonconserved ectodomain histidines provide the binding sites for trace metals, divalent cations, and protons. The transmembrane domains account not only for the formation of the channel pore but also for the binding of ivermectin (a specific P2X4R allosteric regulator) and alcohols. The N- and C- domains provide the structures that determine the kinetics of receptor desensitization and/or pore dilation and are critical for the regulation of receptor functions by intracellular messengers, kinases, reactive oxygen species and mercury. The recent publication of the crystal structure of the zebrafish P2X4.1R in a closed state provides a major advance in the understanding of this family of receptor channels. We will discuss data obtained from numerous site-directed mutagenesis experiments accumulated during the last 15 years with reference to the crystal structure, allowing a structural interpretation of the molecular basis of orthosteric and allosteric ligand actions.

17-ß-estradiol and phytoestrogens elicit NO production and vasodilatation through PI3K, PKA and EGF receptors pathways, evidencing functional selectivity.

Endothelial cells express multiple receptors mediating estrogen responses; including the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER). Past studies on nitric oxide (NO) production elicited by estrogens raised the question whether 17-ß-estradiol (E2) and natural phytoestrogens activate equivalent mechanisms. We hypothesized that E2 and phytoestrogens elicit NO production via coupling to distinct intracellular pathways signalling. To this aim, perfusion of E2 and phytoestrogens to the precontracted rat mesentery bed examined vasorelaxation, while fluorescence microscopy on primary endothelial cells cultures quantified single cell NO production determined following 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluoroescein diacetate (DAF) incubation. Daidzein (DAI) and genistein (GEN) induced rapid vasodilatation associated to NO production. Multiple estrogen receptor activity was inferred based on the reduction of DAF-NO signals; G-36 (GPER antagonist) reduced 75 % of all estrogen responses, while fulvestrant (selective nuclear receptor antagonist) reduced significantly more the phytoestrogens responses than E2. The joint application of both antagonists abolished the E2 response but not the phytoestrogen-induced DAF-NO signals. Wortmannin or LY-294002 (PI3K inhibitors), reduced by 90% the E2-evoked signal while altering significantly less the DAI-induced response. In contrast, H-89 (PKA inhibitor), elicited a 23% reduction of the E2-induced signal while blocking 80% of the DAI-induced response. Desmethylxestospongin-B (IP3 receptor antagonist), decreased to equal extent the E2 or the DAI-induced signal. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) induced NO production, cell treatment with AG-1478, an EGF receptor kinase inhibitor reduced 90% DAI-induced response while only 53% the E2-induced signals; highlighting GPER induced EGF receptor trans-modulation. Receptor functional selectivity may explain distinct signalling pathways mediated by E2 and phytoestrogens.

The 5'-untranslated region of the mouse mammary tumor virus mRNA exhibits cap-independent translation initiation.

In this study, we demonstrate the identification of an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) within the 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) of the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV). The 5'-UTR of the full-length mRNA derived from the infectious, complete MMTV genome was cloned into a dual luciferase reporter construct containing an upstream Renilla luciferase gene (RLuc) and a downstream firefly luciferase gene (FLuc). In rabbit reticulocyte lysate, the MMTV 5'-UTR was capable of driving translation of the second cistron. In vitro translational activity from the MMTV 5'-UTR was resistant to the addition of m(7)GpppG cap-analog and cleavage of eIF4G by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) L-protease. IRES activity was also demonstrated in the Xenopus laevis oocyte by micro-injection of capped and polyadenylated bicistronic RNAs harboring the MMTV-5'-UTR. Finally, transfection assays showed that the MMTV-IRES exhibits cell type-dependent translational activity, suggesting a requirement for as yet unidentified cellular factors for its optimal function.

Nanomolar clodronate induces adenosine accumulation in the perfused rat mesenteric bed and mesentery-derived endothelial cells.

The vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT) is critical for sympathetic co-transmission and purinergic transmission maintenance. To examine this proposal, we assessed whether the bisphosphonate clodronate, claimed as a potent in vitro VNUT blocker, modified spontaneous and/or the electrically evoked overflow of ATP/metabolites and NA from mesentery sympathetic perivascular nerve terminals. Additionally, in primary endothelial cell cultures derived from this tissue, we also evaluated whether clodronate interfered with ATP/metabolite cell outflow and metabolism of N6-etheno adenosine 5'-triphosphate (eATP), N6-etheno adenosine (eADO), and adenosine deaminase enzyme activity. Rat mesenteries were perfused in the absence or presence of .01-1,000 nM clodronate, 1-1,000 nM Evans blue (EB), and 1-10 µM DIDS; tissue perfusates were collected to determine ATP/metabolites and NA before, during, and after perivascular electrical nerve terminal depolarization. An amount of 1-1,000 nM clodronate did not modify the time course of ATP or NA overflow elicited by nerve terminal depolarization, and only 10 nM clodronate significantly augmented perfusate adenosine. Electrical nerve terminal stimulation increased tissue perfusion pressure that was significantly reduced only by 10 nM clodronate [90.0 ± 18.6 (n = 8) to 35.0 ± 10.4 (n = 7), p = .0277]. As controls, EB, DIDS, or reserpine treatment reduced the overflow of ATP/metabolites and NA in a concentration-dependent manner elicited by nerve terminal depolarization. Moreover, mechanical stimulation of primary endothelial cell cultures from the rat mesentery added with 10 or 100 nM clodronate increased adenosine in the cell media. eATP was metabolized by endothelial cells to the same extent with and without 1-1,000 nM clodronate, suggesting the bisphosphonate did not interfere with nucleotide ectoenzyme metabolism. In contrast, extracellular eADO remained intact, indicating that this nucleoside is neither metabolized nor transported intracellularly. Furthermore, only 10 nM clodronate inhibited (15.5%) adenosine metabolism to inosine in endothelial cells as well as in a commercial crude adenosine deaminase enzyme preparation (12.7%), and both effects proved the significance (p < .05). Altogether, present data allow inferring that clodronate inhibits adenosine deaminase activity in isolated endothelial cells as in a crude extract preparation, a finding that may account for adenosine accumulation following clodronate mesentery perfusion.

UTP controls cell surface distribution and vasomotor activity of the human P2Y2 receptor through an epidermal growth factor receptor-transregulated mechanism.

Extracellular nucleotides transmit signals into the cells through the P2 family of cell surface receptors. These receptors are amply expressed in human blood vessels and participate in vascular tone control; however, their signaling mechanisms remain unknown. Here we show that in smooth muscle cells of isolated human chorionic arteries, the activation of the P2Y(2) receptor (P2Y(2)R) induces not only its partition into membrane rafts but also its rapid internalization. Cholesterol depletion with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin reduced the association of the agonist-activated receptor into membrane rafts but did not affect either the UTP-mediated vasoconstrictions or the vasomotor responses elicited by both serotonin and KCl. Ex vivo perfusion of human chorionic artery segments with 1-10 mum UTP, a selective P2Y(2)R agonist, displaced the P2Y(2)R localization into membrane rafts within 1 min, a process preceded by the activation of both RhoA and Rac1 GTPases. AG1478, a selective and potent inhibitor of the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase activity, not only blocked the UTP-induced vasomotor activity but also abrogated both RhoA and Rac1 activation, the P2Y(2)R association with membrane rafts, and its internalization. Altogether, these results show for the first time that the plasma membrane distribution of the P2Y(2)R is transregulated by the epidermal growth factor receptor, revealing an unsuspected functional interplay that controls both the membrane distribution and the vasomotor activity of the P2Y(2)R in intact human blood vessels.

Zinc enhances long-term potentiation through P2X receptor modulation in the hippocampal CA1 region.

Zn²(+) is an essential ion that is stored in and co-released from glutamatergic synapses and it modulates neurotransmitter receptors involved in long-term potentiation (LTP). However, the mechanism(s) underlying Zn²(+) -induced modulation of LTP remain(s) unclear. As the purinergic P2X receptors are relevant targets for Zn²(+) action, we have studied their role in LTP modulation by Zn²(+) in the CA1 region of rat hippocampal slices. Induction of LTP in the presence of Zn²(+) revealed a biphasic effect - 5-50 µm enhanced LTP induction, whereas 100-300 µm Zn²(+) inhibited LTP. The involvement of a purinergic mechanism is supported by the fact that application of the P2X receptor antagonists 2',3'-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl) ATP (TNP-ATP) and periodate-oxidized ATP fully abolished the facilitatory effect of Zn²(+) . Notably, application of the P2X7 receptor-specific antagonist Brilliant Blue G did not modify the Zn²(+) -dependent facilitation of LTP. Exogenous ATP also produced a biphasic effect - 0.1-1 µm ATP facilitated LTP, whereas 5-10 µm inhibited LTP. The facilitatory effect of ATP was abolished by the application of TNP-ATP and was modified in the presence of 5 µm Zn²(+) , suggesting that P2X receptors are involved in LTP induction and that Zn²(+) leads to an increase in the affinity of P2X receptors for ATP. The latter confirms our previous results from heterologous expression systems. Collectively, our results indicate that Zn²(+) at low concentrations enhances LTP by modulating P2X receptors. Although it is not yet clear which purinergic receptor subtype(s) is responsible for these effects on LTP, the data presented here suggest that P2X4 but not P2X7 is involved.

Allosteric modulation of ATP-gated P2X receptor channels.

Seven mammalian purinergic receptor subunits, denoted P2X1-P2X7, and several spliced forms of these subunits have been cloned. When heterologously expressed, these cDNAs encode ATP-gated non-selective cation channels organized as trimers. All activated receptors produce cell depolarization and promote Ca(2+) influx through their pores and indirectly by activating voltage-gated calcium channels. However, the biophysical and pharmacological properties of these receptors differ considerably, and the majority of these subunits are also capable of forming heterotrimers with other members of the P2X receptor family, which confers further different properties. These channels have three ATP binding domains, presumably located between neighboring subunits, and occupancy of at least two binding sites is needed for their activation. In addition to the orthosteric binding sites for ATP, these receptors have additional allosteric sites that modulate the agonist action at receptors, including sites for trace metals, protons, neurosteroids, reactive oxygen species and phosphoinositides. The allosteric regulation of P2X receptors is frequently receptor-specific and could be a useful tool to identify P2X members in native tissues and their roles in signaling. The focus of this review is on common and receptor-specific allosteric modulation of P2X receptors and the molecular base accounting for allosteric binding sites.

Lipopolysaccharide inhibits the channel activity of the P2X7 receptor.

The purinergic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) plays an important role during the immune response, participating in several events such as cytokine release, apoptosis, and necrosis. The bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is one of the strongest stimuli of the immune response, and it has been shown that P2X7R activation can modulate LPS-induced responses. Moreover, a C-terminal binding site for LPS has been proposed. In order to evaluate if LPS can directly modulate the activity of the P2X7R, we tested several signaling pathways associated with P2X7R activation in HEK293 cells that do not express the TLR-4 receptor. We found that LPS alone was unable to induce any P2X7R-related activity, suggesting that the P2X7R is not directly activated by the endotoxin. On the other hand, preapplication of LPS inhibited ATP-induced currents, intracellular calcium increase, and ethidium bromide uptake and had no effect on ERK activation in HEK293 cells. In splenocytes-derived T-regulatory cells, in which ATP-induced apoptosis is driven by the P2X7R, LPS inhibited ATP-induced apoptosis. Altogether, these results demonstrate that LPS modulates the activity of the P2X7R and suggest that this effect could be of physiological relevance.

Anthocyanins Activate Membrane Estrogen Receptors With Nanomolar Potencies to Elicit a Nongenomic Vascular Response Via NO Production.

Background The vascular pharmacodynamics of anthocyanins is only partially understood. To examine whether the anthocyanin-induced vasorelaxation is related to membrane estrogen receptor activity, the role of ERα or GPER antagonism was ascertained on anthocyanins or 17-ß estradiol-(E2) induced vasodilatations and NO production. Methods and Results The rat arterial mesenteric bed was perfused with either anthocyanins or corresponding 3-O-glycosides, or E2, to examine rapid concentration-dependent vasorelaxations. The luminally accessible fraction of NO in mesenteric perfusates before and after anthocyanins or E2 administration was quantified. Likewise, NO-DAF signal detected NO production in primary endothelial cells cultures incubated with anthocyanins or E2 in the absence and presence of ERα (ICI 182,780) or GPER (G-36) selective antagonists. Anthocyanins or corresponding glycosides elicited, within minutes, vasodilation with nanomolar potencies; half maximal anthocyanin response reached 50% to 60% efficacy, in contrast to acetylcholine. The vasorelaxation is of rapid onset and exclusively endothelium-dependent; NOS inhibition annulled the vasorelaxation. The delphinidin vascular response was not modified by 100 nmol/L atropine but significantly attenuated by joint application of ICI plus G-36 (52±4.6 versus 8.5±1.5%), revealing the role of membrane estrogen receptors. Moreover, the anthocyanin or E2-induced NO production was antagonized up to 70% by these antagonists. NO-DAF signal elicited by anthocyanins was annulled by NOS inhibition or by ICI plus G-36 addition. Conclusions The biomedical effect of anthocyanins or 3-O-glycosylates derivatives contained in naturally purple-colored foods or berries is due to increased NO production, and not to the phytochemical's antioxidant potential, highlighting the nutraceutical role of natural products in cardiovascular diseases.

Reactive oxygen species potentiate the P2X2 receptor activity through intracellular Cys430.

P2X receptor channels (P2XRs) are allosterically modulated by several compounds, mainly acting at the ectodomain of the receptor. Like copper, mercury, a metal that induces oxidative stress in cells, also stimulates the activity of P2X(2)R and inhibits the activity of P2X(4)R. However, the mercury modulation is not related to the extracellular residues critical for copper modulation. To identify the site(s) for mercury action, we generated two chimeras using the full size P2X(2) subunit, termed P2X(2a), and a splice variant lacking a 69 residue segment in the C terminal, termed P2X(2b), as the donors for intracellular and transmembrane segments and the P2X(4) subunit as the donor for ectodomain segment of chimeras. The potentiating effect of mercury on ATP-induced current was preserved in Xenopus oocytes expressing P2X(4/2a) chimera but was absent in oocytes expressing P2X(4/2b) chimera. Site-directed mutagenesis experiments revealed that the Cys(430) residue mediates effects of mercury on the P2X(2a)R activity. Because mercury could act as an oxidative stress inducer, we also tested whether hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and mitochondrial stress inducers myxothiazol and rotenone mimicked mercury effects. These experiments, done in both oocytes and human embryonic kidney HEK293 cells, revealed that these compounds potentiated the ATP-evoked P2X(2a)R and P2X(4/2a)R currents but not P2X(2b)R and P2X(2a)-C430A and P2X(2a)-C430S mutant currents, whereas antioxidants dithiothreitrol and N-acetylcysteine prevented the H(2)O(2) potentiation. Alkylation of Cys(430) residue with methylmethane-thiosulfonate also abolished the mercury and H(2)O(2) potentiation. Altogether, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that the Cys(430) residue is an intracellular P2X(2a)R redox sensor.

NO production and eNOS phosphorylation induced by epinephrine through the activation of beta-adrenoceptors.

Epinephrine plays a key role in the control of vasomotor tone; however, the participation of the NO/cGMP pathway in response to beta-adrenoceptor activation remains controversial. To evaluate the involvement of the endothelium in the vascular response to epinephrine, we assessed NO production, endothelial NO synthase phosphorylation, and tissue accumulation of cGMP in the perfused arterial mesenteric bed of rat. Epinephrine elicited a concentration-dependent increase in NO (EC(50) of 45.7 pM), which was coupled to cGMP tissue accumulation. Both NO and cGMP production were blocked by either endothelium removal (saponin) or NO synthase inhibition (N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine). Blockade of beta(1)- and beta(2)-adrenoceptors with 1 microM propranolol or beta(3)-adrenoceptor with 10 nM SR 59230A displaced rightward the concentration-NO production curve evoked by epinephrine. Selective stimulation of beta(1)-, beta(2)-, or beta(3)-adrenoceptors also resulted in NO and cGMP production. Propranolol (1 microM) inhibited the rise in NO induced by isoproterenol or the beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists salbutamol, terbutaline, or fenoterol. Likewise, 10 nM SR 59230A reduced the effects of the beta(3)-adrenoceptor agonists BRL 37344, CGP 12177, SR 595611A, or pindolol. The NO production induced by epinephrine and BRL 37344 was associated with the activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway and phosphorylation of eNOS in serine 1177. In addition, in anaesthetized rats, bolus administration of isoproterenol, salbutamol, or BRL 37344 produced NO-dependent reductions in systolic blood pressure. These findings indicate that beta(1)-, beta(2)-, and beta(3)-adrenoceptors are coupled to the NO/cGMP pathway, highlighting the role of the endothelium in the vasomotor action elicited by epinephrine and related beta-adrenoceptor agonists.

P2Y1 receptor activation elicits its partition out of membrane rafts and its rapid internalization from human blood vessels: implications for receptor signaling.

The nucleotide P2Y(1) receptor (P2Y(1)R) is expressed in both the endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cells; however, its plasma membrane microregionalization and internalization in human tissues remain unknown. We report on the role of membrane rafts in P2Y(1)R signaling by using sodium carbonate or OptiPrep sucrose density gradients, Western blot analysis, reduction of tissue cholesterol content, and vasomotor assays of endothelium-denuded human chorionic arteries. In tissue extracts prepared either in sodium carbonate or OptiPrep, approximately 20 to 30% of the total P2Y(1)R mass consistently partitioned into raft fractions and correlated with vasomotor activity. Vessel treatment with methyl beta-cyclodextrin reduced the raft partitioning of the P2Y(1)R and obliterated the P2Y(1)R-mediated contractions but not the vasomotor responses elicited by either serotonin or KCl. Perfusion of chorionic artery segments with 100 nM 2-methylthio ADP or 10 nM [[(1R,2R,3S,4R,5S)-4-[6-amino-2-(methylthio)-9H-purin-9-yl] 2,3dihydroxybicyclo[3.1.0]hex-1-yl]methyl] diphosphoric acid mono ester trisodium salt (MRS 2365), a selective P2Y(1)R agonist, not only displaced within 4 min the P2Y(1)R localization out of membrane rafts but also induced its subsequent internalization. 2'-Deoxy-N(6)-methyladenosine 3',5'-bisphosphate tetrasodium salt (MRS 2179), a specific P2Y(1)R antagonist, did not cause a similar displacement but blocked the agonist-induced exit from rafts. Neither adenosine nor uridine triphosphate displaced the P2Y(1)R from the membrane raft, further evidencing the pharmacodynamics of the receptor-ligand interaction. Vascular reactivity assays showed fading of the ligand-induced vasoconstrictions, a finding that correlated with the P2Y(1)R exit from raft domains and internalization. These results demonstrate in intact human vascular smooth muscle the association of the P2Y(1)R to membrane rafts, highlighting the role of this microdomain in P2Y(1)R signaling.

Increased ATP and ADO Overflow From Sympathetic Nerve Endings and Mesentery Endothelial Cells Plus Reduced Nitric Oxide Are Involved in Diabetic Neurovascular Dysfunction.

Since the mechanism of human diabetic peripheral neuropathy and vascular disease in type 1 diabetes mellitus remains unknown, we assessed whether sympathetic transmitter overflow is altered by this disease and associated to vascular dysfunction. Diabetes was induced by streptozotocin (STZ)-treatment and compared to vehicle-treated rats. Aliquots of the ex vivo perfused rat arterial mesenteric preparation, denuded of the endothelial layer, were collected to quantify analytically sympathetic nerve co-transmitters overflow secreted by the isolated mesenteries of both groups of rats. Noradrenaline (NA), neuropeptide tyrosine (NPY), and ATP/metabolites were detected before, during, and after electrical field stimulation (EFS, 20 Hz) of the nerve terminals surrounding the mesenteric artery. NA overflow was comparable in both groups; however, basal or EFS-secreted ir-NPY was 26% reduced (p < 0.05) in diabetics. Basal and EFS-evoked ATP and adenosine (ADO) overflow to the arterial mesentery perfusate increased twofold and was longer lasting in diabetics; purine tissue content was 37.8% increased (p < 0.05) in the mesenteries from STZ-treated group of rats. Perfusion of the arterial mesentery vascular territory with 100 µM ATP, 100 nM 2-MeSADP, or 1 µM UTP elicited vasodilator responses of the same magnitude in controls or diabetics, but the increase in luminally accessible NO was 60-70% lower in diabetics (p < 0.05). Moreover, the concentration-response curve elicited by two NO donors was displaced downwards (p < 0.01) in diabetic rats. Parallel studies using primary cultures of endothelial cells from the arterial mesentery vasculature revealed that mechanical stimulation induced a rise in extracellular nucleotides, which in the cells from diabetic rats was larger and longer-lasting when comparing the extracellular release of ATP and ADO values to those of vehicle-treated controls. A 5 min challenge with purinergic agonists elicited a cell media NO rise, which was reduced in the endothelial cells from diabetic rats. Present findings provide neurochemical support for the diabetes-induced neuropathy and show that mesenteric endothelial cells alterations in response to mechanical stimulation are compatible with the endothelial dysfunction related to vascular disease progress.

Vasomotion in human umbilical and placental veins: role of gap junctions and intracellular calcium reservoirs in their synchronous propagation.

Vasomotion was characterized using human placentae vessel rings; force displacement transducers recorded isometric contractions. Umbilical vein rings display rhythmic contractions occurring with a frequency of 1.47+/-0.01 min(-1) and 274+/-2.2 mg (n=211) of amplitude, which corresponds to 11.1+/-0.4% of the maximal KCl contracture. Vasomotion waves were recorded for up to 8 h; their amplitude and duration was larger in umbilical veins than arteries or chorionic vessels (p<0.001), vasomotion frequency was indistinguishable among these vessels. Segments of the umbilical vein closer to the fetus showed larger amplitudes and longer-lasting waves. Gap junction blockers, including peptide Gap 27, 18alpha-glycyrrhetinic acid, hexanol, heptanol or octanol, reduced the amplitude but not the frequency of vasomotion; all these drugs, in addition, decreased tissue basal tension. The role of intracellular calcium stores was evidenced using calcium-free buffer, which reduced oscillation amplitude and tissue basal tension. Cyclopiazonic acid increased wave amplitude and tissue basal tension, reducing oscillatory frequency. We propose that biological oscillators localized in the smooth muscle layer of the umbilical cord, trigger vasomotion waves, which are synchronized and propagated via gap junctions; internal calcium reservoirs are essential for their maintenance. These myogenic oscillations may be relevant for maternal-fetus blood flow and contribute to fetal nutrition and development.

Stoichiometry and conditional stability constants of Cu(II) or Zn(II) clioquinol complexes; implications for Alzheimer's and Huntington's disease therapy.

Successful trials with 5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline (clioquinol, CQ) for Alzheimer's disease treatment prompted renewed interest in assessing whether its therapeutic action is related to the coordination of neurotoxic trace metals, such as Cu(II) and Zn(II). We now report conditional stability constants (K(C')) for CQ Cu(II) and Zn(II) complexes measured in a biological buffer containing Ca(II) and Mg(II) ions. UV-vis spectroscopy and polarography evidenced a 1:2 stoichiometry of Cu(II) and Zn(II) CQ complexes; the K(C')s calculated were: Cu(CQ)(2) 1.2x10(10), and Zn(CQ)(2) 7.0x10(8)M(-2); the CQ affinity for Cu(II) is at least an order of magnitude higher than for Zn(II). To test the possible functional relevance of the Cu(II) CQ complexes in the brain, we bioassayed free Cu(II) concentration by the metal-induced inhibition of ATP-gated currents of the P2X(4) receptor, a predominant brain P2X receptor. CQ reduced concentration-dependently the Cu(II) inhibition of the ATP-gated currents. In view that the stability constant of CQ for Zn(II) is similar to that of Abeta-amyloid for Zn(II), and the fact that CQ may form complexes with Cu(II), even in the presence of competing ions, the present results highlight that the formation of Cu(II) CQ complexes in the brain may act by diminishing free Cu(II) concentrations modifying thereby brain excitability, or favoring the degradation of beta-amyloid plaques or huntingtin, rather than through a specific effect of CQ itself.

Modulator role of neuropeptide Y in human vascular sympathetic neuroeffector junctions.

Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) studies identified the mRNA coding for the Y1 and Y2 receptors in human mammary artery/vein and saphenous vein biopsies. Y1 receptors are expressed in vascular smooth muscles and potentiate the contractile action of sympathetic co-transmitters, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and noradrenaline (NA); BIBP 3226, a competitive Y1 receptor antagonist, blocked the neuropeptide Y (NPY)-induced modulation. The Y2 receptor is expressed in sympathetic nerves terminals and modulates the pool of sympathetic co-transmitters released at the neuroeffector junction. NPY plays a dual role as a modulator of sympathetic co-transmission; it facilitates vascular smooth muscle reactivity and modulates the presynaptic release of ATP and NA. Sympathetic reflexes regulate human vascular resistance, where NPY plays a modulator role of paramount importance following increased sympathetic discharges, such as stress and vascular disease.

The hypolipidemic drug metabolites nafenopin-CoA and ciprofibroyl-CoA are competitive P2Y1 receptor antagonists.

Coenzyme A (CoA-SH), endogenous and drug-derived CoA-derivatives were tested as putative antagonists of P2Y receptors expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, a method used to determine calcium-activated chloride current, an indicator of the activation of these receptors. CoA-SH antagonized reversibly and in a concentration-dependent manner the ATP-gated currents evoked by the human P2Y(1) but not the P2Y(2) receptor. Palmitoyl-CoA was four-fold more potent than CoA-SH as an antagonist while palmitoyl-carnitine was inactive, highlighting the role of the CoA-SH moiety in the antagonism. The CoA derivatives of nafenopin and ciprofibrate, two clinically relevant hypolipidemic drugs, increased 13 and three-fold the potency of CoA-SH, respectively. The K(B)s of nafenopin-CoA and ciprofibroyl-CoA were 58 and 148 nM, respectively; the slopes of the Schild plots were unitary. Neither 100 microM nafenopin nor ciprofibrate alone altered the P2Y(1) receptor activity. Neither CoA-SH nor ciprofibroyl-CoA antagonized the rat P2X(2) or the P2X(4) nucleotide receptors nor interacted with the 5-HT(2A/C) receptors. The bulky drug CoA-SH derivatives identify a hydrophobic pocket, which may serve as a potential target for novel selective P2Y(1) antagonists.