Intracellular growth of Brucella is mediated by Dps-dependent activation of ferritinophagy.

Bacteria of the genus Brucella cause brucellosis, one of the world's most common zoonotic diseases. A major contributor to Brucella's virulence is the ability to circumvent host immune defense mechanisms. Here, we find that the DNA-binding protein Dps from Brucella is secreted within the macrophage cytosol, modulating host iron homeostasis and mediating intracellular growth of Brucella. In addition to dampening iron-dependent production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a key immune effector required for immediate bacterial clearance, cytosolic Dps mediates ferritinophagy activation to elevate intracellular free-iron levels, thereby promoting Brucella growth and inducing host cell necrosis. Inactivation of the ferritinophagy pathway by Ncoa4 gene knockout significantly inhibits intracellular growth of Brucella and host cell death. Our study uncovers an unconventional role of bacterial Dps, identifying a crucial virulence mechanism used by Brucella to adapt to the harsh environment inside macrophages.

Intracellular Growth Inhibition and Host Immune Modulation of 3-Amino-1,2,4-triazole in Murine Brucellosis.

Catalase, an antioxidant enzyme widely produced in mammalian cells and bacteria, is crucial to mitigating oxidative stress in hostile environments. This function enhances the intracellular survivability of various intracellular growth pathogens, including Brucella (B.) abortus. In this study, to determine whether the suppression of catalase can inhibit the intracellular growth of B. abortus, we employed 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole (3-AT), a catalase inhibitor, in both RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and an ICR mouse model during Brucella infection. The intracellular growth assay indicated that 3-AT exerts growth-inhibitory effects on B. abortus within macrophages. Moreover, it contributes to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and the formation of nitric oxide. Notably, 3-AT diminishes the activation of the nucleus transcription factor (NF-κB) and modulates the cytokine secretion within infected cells. In our mouse model, the administration of 3-AT reduced the B. abortus proliferation within the spleens and livers of infected mice. This reduction was accompanied by a diminished immune response to infection, as indicated by the lowered levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10 and altered CD4+/CD8+ T-cell ratio. These results suggest the protective and immunomodulatory effects of 3-AT treatment against Brucella infection.

Simvastatin Inhibits Brucella abortus Invasion into RAW 264.7 Cells through Suppression of the Mevalonate Pathway and Promotes Host Immunity during Infection in a Mouse Model.

Simvastatin is an inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase and has been found to have protective effects against several bacterial infections. In this study, we investigate the effects of simvastatin treatment on RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and ICR mice against Brucella (B.) abortus infections. The invasion assay revealed that simvastatin inhibited the Brucella invasion into macrophage cells by blocking the mevalonic pathway. The treatment of simvastatin enhanced the trafficking of Toll-like receptor 4 in membrane lipid raft microdomains, accompanied by the increased phosphorylation of its downstream signaling pathways, including JAK2 and MAPKs, upon =Brucella infection. Notably, the suppressive effect of simvastatin treatment on Brucella invasion was not dependent on the reduction of cholesterol synthesis but probably on the decline of farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthesis. In addition to a direct brucellacidal ability, simvastatin administration showed increased cytokine TNF-α and differentiation of CD8+ T cells, accompanied by reduced bacterial survival in spleens of ICR mice. These data suggested the involvement of the mevalonate pathway in the phagocytosis of B. abortus into RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and the regulation of simvastatin on the host immune system against Brucella infections. Therefore, simvastatin is a potential candidate for studying alternative therapy against animal brucellosis.

Immune-metabolic receptor GPR84 surrogate and endogenous agonists, 6-OAU and lauric acid, alter Brucella abortus 544 infection in both in vitro and in vivo systems.

Brucella abortus, one of the most important members of the genus Brucella responsible for human disease, is an intracellular pathogen capable of avoiding or interfering components of the host immune responses that are critical for its virulence. GPR84, on the other hand, is a seven-transmembrane GPCR involved in the inflammatory response and its induced expression was associated with B. abortus infection of RAW264.7 cells. Here we examined the effects of the reported GPR84 surrogate and endogenous agonists, namely 6-n-octylaminouracil (6-OAU) and lauric acid (LU), respectively in the progression of B. abortus infection in a cell and mouse models. The in vitro studies revealed the LU had bactericidal effect against Brucella starting at 24 h post-incubation. Adhesion of Brucella to RAW264.7 cells was attenuated in both 6-OAU and LU treatments. Brucella uptake was observed to be inhibited in a dose and time-dependent manner in 6-OAU but only at the highest non-cytotoxic concentration in LU-treated cells. However, survival of Brucella within the cells was reduced only in LU-treated cells. We also investigated the possible inhibitory effects of the agonist in other Gram-negative bacterium, Salmonella Typhimurium and we found that both adhesion and uptake were inhibited in 6-OAU treatment and only the intracellular survival for LU treatment. Furthermore, 6-OAU treatment reduced ERK phosphorylation and MCP-1 secretion during Brucella infection as well as reduced MALT1 protein expression and ROS production in cells without infection. LU treatment attenuated ERK and JNK phosphorylation, MCP-1 secretion and NO accumulation but increased ROS production during infection, and similar pattern with MALT1 protein expression. The in vivo studies showed that both treatments via oral route augmented resistance to Brucella infection but more pronounced with 6-AOU as observed with reduced bacterial proliferation in spleens and livers. At 7 d post-treatment and 14 d post-infection, 6-OAU-treated mice displayed reduced IFN-γ serum level. At 7 d post-infection, high serum level of MCP-1 was observed in both treatments with the addition of TNF-α in LU group. IL-6 was increased in both treatments at 14 d post-infection with higher TNF-α, MCP-1 and IL-10 in LU group. Taken together, 6-OAU and LU are potential candidates representing pharmaceutical strategy against brucellosis and possibly other intracellular pathogens or inflammatory diseases.

Immunogenicity and protective response induced by recombinant Brucella abortus proteins Adk, SecB and combination of these two recombinant proteins against a virulent strain B. abortus 544 infection in BALB/c mice.

In this study, two recombinant proteins encoded by Brucella abortus genes Adk and SecB were evaluated as single subunit vaccine (SSV) as well as combined subunit vaccine (CSV) against B. abortus infection in BALB/c mice. These genes were cloned into pcold-TF expression system and recombinant proteins were expressed in Escherichia coli DH5α. The immunoreactivity of purified rAdk and rSecB was analyzed by immunoblotting showing that purified rAdk and rSecB as well as pcold-TF vector strongly reacted with Brucella-positive serum. Mice were immunized intraperitoneally with SSVs, CSV, pcold-TF, RB51 and PBS. The analysis of cytokine revealed that SSVs and CSV can strongly induce production of proinflammatory cytokines TNF and IL-6, suggesting that these subunit vaccines elicited innate immune response, particularly, activated antimicrobial mechanism of macrophages to limit the initial infection. On the other hand, immunization with SSVs and CSV elicited strong IFN-γ production and decreased IL-10 production compared to PBS group. The secretion profiles of IFN-γ and IL-10 together with an enhancement of blood CD4+ population and significantly induced specific IgG1 and IgG2a antibodies indicated that SSVs and CSV induced not only humoral immunity but also T helper 1 T cell immunity. Finally, spleen proliferation and bacterial burden in the spleen of mice vaccinated with these subunit vaccines were significantly lower than those of PBS group, which conferred significant protection against B. abortus infection. Altogether, the potential of these antigens of B. abortus could be prospective candidates to develop subunit vaccines against brucellosis.

Interleukin 10 suppresses lysosome-mediated killing of Brucella abortus in cultured macrophages.

Brucella abortus is a Gram-negative zoonotic pathogen for which there is no 100% effective vaccine. Phagosomes in B. abortus-infected cells fail to mature, allowing the pathogen to survive and proliferate. Interleukin 10 (IL10) promotes B. abortus persistence in macrophages by mechanisms that are not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the regulatory role of IL10 in the immune response to B. abortus infection. B. abortus-infected macrophages were treated with either IL10 siRNA or recombinant IL10 (rIL10), and the expression of phagolysosome- or inflammation-related genes was evaluated by qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Phagolysosome fusion was monitored by fluorescence microscopy. We found that the synthesis of several membrane-trafficking regulators and lysosomal enzymes was suppressed by IL10 during infection, resulting in a significant increase in the recruitment of hydrolytic enzymes by Brucella-containing phagosomes (BCPs) when IL10 signaling was blocked. Moreover, blocking IL10 signaling also enhanced proinflammatory cytokine production. Finally, concomitant treatment with STAT3 siRNA significantly reduced the suppression of proinflammatory brucellacidal activity but not phagolysosome fusion by rIL10. Thus, our data provide the first evidence that clearly indicates the suppressive role of IL10 on phagolysosome fusion and inflammation in response to B. abortus infection through two distinct mechanisms, STAT3-independent and -dependent pathways, respectively, in murine macrophages.

Interleukin 6 Promotes Brucella abortus Clearance by Controlling Bactericidal Activity of Macrophages and CD8+ T Cell Differentiation.

To date, the implications of interleukin 6 (IL-6) for immune responses in the context of Brucella infection are still unknown. In the present study, we found that Brucella abortus infection induced marked production of IL-6 in mice that was important for sufficient differentiation of CD8+ T cells, a key factor in Brucella clearance. Blocking IL-6 signaling also significantly induced serum IL-4 and IL-10, together with a decreased gamma interferon (IFN-γ) level, suggesting that IL-6 is essential for priming the T-helper (Th) 1 cell immune response during Brucella infection. The IL-6 pathway also activated the bactericidal activity of primary and cultured macrophages. Bacterial killing was markedly abrogated when IL-6 signaling was suppressed, and this phenomenon was mainly associated with decreased activity of lysosome-mediated killing. Interestingly, suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) was important for regulating the IL-6-dependent anti-Brucella activity through the JAK/STAT pathway. During early infection, in the absence of SOCS3, IL-6 exhibited anti-inflammatory effects and lysosome-mediated killing inhibition; however, the increase in SOCS3 successfully shifted functional IL-6 toward proinflammatory brucellacidal activity in the late stage. Our data clearly indicate that IL-6 contributes to host resistance against B. abortus infection by controlling brucellacidal activity in macrophages and priming cellular immune responses.

Lipocalin 2 (Lcn2) interferes with iron uptake by Brucella abortus and dampens immunoregulation during infection of RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Lipocalin 2 (Lcn2) is an important innate immunity component against bacterial pathogens. In this study, we report that Lcn2 is induced by Brucella (B.) abortus infection and significantly contributes to the restriction of intracellular survival of Brucella in macrophages. We found that Lcn2 prevented iron uptake by B. abortus through two distinct mechanisms. First, Lcn2 is secreted to capture bacterial siderophore(s) and abrogate iron import by Brucella. Second, Lcn2 decreases the intracellular iron levels during Brucella infection, which probably deprives the invading Brucella of the iron source needed for growth. Suppression of Lcn2 signalling resulted in a marked induction of anti-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin 10, which was shown to play a major role in Lcn2-induced antibrucella immunity. Similarly, interleukin 6 was also found to be increased when Lcn2 signalling is abrogated; however, this induction was thought to be an alternative pathway that rescues the cell from infection when the effective Lnc2 pathway is repressed. Furthermore, Lcn2 deficiency also caused a marked decrease in brucellacidal effectors, such as reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide but not the phagolysosome fusion. Taken together, our results indicate that Lcn2 is required for the efficient restriction of intracellular B. abortus growth that is through limiting iron acquisition and shifting cells to pro-inflammatory brucellacidal activity in murine macrophages.

Heat-stress-modulated induction of NF-κB leads to brucellacidal pro-inflammatory defense against Brucella abortus infection in murine macrophages and in a mouse model.

BACKGROUND: Brucella causes a chronic and debilitating infection that leads to great economic losses and a public health burden. In this study, we demonstrated the brucellacidal effect of heat shock mediated by the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and apoptosis in murine macrophages and in mice. RESULTS: RAW264.7 cells were incubated at 43 °C, and BALB/c mice were subjected to whole body hyperthermia. The data showed a reduction in bacterial survival in the mice after daily heat exposure. This was accompanied by increased levels of cytokines TNF, IL-6, IL-1ß and IFN-γ in the sera of the mice. Gene expression of NF-κB and inducible nitric oxide production were also induced in the mouse splenic cells. In parallel with the bacterial reduction in the mouse model, an increased bactericidal effect was observed in RAW264.7 cells after exposure to heat stress. In addition, the heat stress increased both the nuclear translocation of NF-κB and the expression of the heat shock proteins HSP70 and HSP90 in murine macrophages. Furthermore, heat exposure induced the increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines, ROS accumulation and apoptosis but did not affect the production of nitric oxide (NO) in macrophages. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated the induction of innate immune responses by heat stress that significantly reduced the intracellular survival of B. abortus in vitro and in vivo. Transcriptional factor NF-κB, which is a master regulator, could be termed a key activator of heat-induced immunity against Brucella. The increase in the expression and activation of NF-κB in splenic cells and macrophages was followed by enhanced antimicrobial effectors, including cytokines, ROS and NO that may contribute to the reduction of bacterial survival.

Simultaneous RNA-seq based transcriptional profiling of intracellular Brucella abortus and B. abortus-infected murine macrophages.

Brucella is a zoonotic pathogen that survives within macrophages; however the replicative mechanisms involved are not fully understood. We describe the isolation of sufficient Brucella abortus RNA from primary host cell environment using modified reported methods for RNA-seq analysis, and simultaneously characterize the transcriptional profiles of intracellular B. abortus and bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMM) from BALB/c mice at 24 h (replicative phase) post-infection. Our results revealed that 25.12% (801/3190) and 16.16% (515/3190) of the total B. abortus genes were up-regulated and down-regulated at >2-fold, respectively as compared to the free-living B. abortus. Among >5-fold differentially expressed genes, the up-regulated genes are mostly involved in DNA, RNA manipulations as well as protein biosynthesis and secretion while the down-regulated genes are mainly involved in energy production and metabolism. On the other hand, the host responses during B. abortus infection revealed that 14.01% (6071/43,346) of BMM genes were reproducibly transcribed at >5-fold during infection. Transcription of cytokines, chemokines and transcriptional factors, such as tumor necrosis factor (Tnf), interleukin-1α (Il1α), interleukin-1ß (Il1ß), interleukin-6 (Il6), interleukin-12 (Il12), chemokine C-X-C motif (CXCL) family, nuclear factor kappa B (Nf-κb), signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (Stat1), that may contribute to host defense were markedly induced while transcription of various genes involved in cell proliferation and metabolism were suppressed upon B. abortus infection. In conclusion, these data suggest that Brucella modulates gene expression in hostile intracellular environment while simultaneously alters the host pathways that may lead to the pathogen's intracellular survival and infection.

The in vitro and in vivo protective effects of tannin derivatives against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection.

In this study, we investigated the protective effects of tannin-derived components, gallic acid (GA) and tannic acid (TA), in vitro and in vivo against Salmonella infection in mice. Both GA and TA showed antibacterial effects against Salmonella (S.) Typhimurium as well as inhibitory effects on the adherence, invasion, and intracellular growth of the pathogens in macrophages. Following a lethal dose of Salmonella infection in mice, reduced virulence in both GA- and TA-treated groups was observed based on reduced mortality rates. In the non-infected groups, the average weights of the spleens and livers of GA- or TA-treated mice were not significantly different with the control group. In addition, the average weights of these organs in all of the Salmonella-infected groups were not significantly different but the numbers of bacteria in the spleens and livers in both GA- and TA-treated mice were significantly reduced. The levels of cytokine production in non-infected mice revealed that GA-treated and TA-treated mice elicited an increased level of IFN-γ, and both IFN-γ and MCP-1, respectively, as compared with the PBS-treated group. These findings highlight the potential of GA and TA as alternatives for the treatment of salmonellosis and as supplements to conventional antimicrobial food additives.

Nocodazole treatment interrupted Brucella abortus invasion in RAW 264.7 cells, and successfully attenuated splenic proliferation with enhanced inflammatory response in mice.

Brucellosis is one of the most important and widespread zoonosis worldwide responsible for serious economic losses and considerable public health burden. In this study, we investigated the modulatory effect of a microtubule-inhibitor, nocodazole, on B. abortus infection in murine macrophages and in a mouse model. Nocodazole activated macrophages and directly inhibited the growth of Brucella in a dose-dependent manner. Nocodazole increased adhesion but reduced invasion and intracellular growth of Brucella in macrophages although it did not affect co-localization of Brucella with LAMP-1. In addition, nocodazole negatively affected actin polymerization, and weakly activated ERK and p38α but significantly activated JNK in non-infected cells. After subsequent infection, nocodazole weakly inhibited activation of ERK and p38α. For the in vivo tests, nocodazole -treated mice displayed elevated levels of IFN-γ, MCP-1 and IL-10 while Brucella-infected nocodazole -treated mice showed high levels of TNF, IFN-γ, MCP-1, IL-10 and IL-6 as compared to controls. Furthermore, nocodazole treatment reduced inflammation and Brucella proliferation in the spleens of mice. These findings highlight the potential use of nocodazole for the control of brucellosis although further investigations are encouraged to validate its therapeutic use in animal hosts.

The Modulatory Effect of Sodium Propionate Treatment in the Expression of Inflammatory Cytokines and Intracellular Growth of Brucella abortus 544 in Raw 264.7 Cells.

In this study, we investigated the effects of sodium propionate (SP) treatment on intracellular mechanism of murine macrophages and its contribution to host immunity during Brucella abortus 544 infection. The intracellular growth assay revealed that SP inhibited Brucella replication inside the macrophages. To determine intracellular signaling involved during SP treatment after Brucella infection, we analyzed the change of five different cytokines production relevant to SP such as TNF-α, IL-10, IFN-γ, IL-1ß, and IL-6, and the results indicated that the boost with IL-10 was apparent throughout the culture period for 48 h as well as IL-1ß which was apparent at 24 h post-infection and IFN-γ which was apparent at 24 h and 48 h in comparison to SP untreated groups. On the other way, SP-treated cells displayed suppressed production of TNF-α and IL-6 at all time points tested and 48 h post-infection, respectively. Furthermore, we conducted western blot to establish a cellular mechanism, and the result suggested that SP treatment attenuated p50 phosphorylation, part of the NF-κB pathway. These findings indicated that the inhibitory effect of SP against Brucella infection could be attributed through induction of cytokine production and interference on intracellular pathway, suggesting SP as a potential candidate for treating brucellosis.

Protective Effects against Brucella abortus 544 Infection in a Murine Macrophage Cell Line and in a Mouse Model via Treatment with Sirtuin 1 Activators Resveratrol, Piceatannol and Ginsenoside Rg3.

Brucellosis is a contagious zoonotic disease that infects millions of people annually with hundreds of millions more being exposed. It is caused by Brucella, a highly infectious bacterial species capable of infecting humans with an estimated dose of 10-100 organisms. Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) has been reported to contribute to prevention of viral diseases as well as a chronic infection caused by Mycobacterium bovis. Here, we investigated the role of SIRT1 in the establishment of Brucella abortus infection in both in vitro and in vivo systems using the reported SIRT1 activators resveratrol (RES), piceatannol (PIC), and ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3). In RAW264.7 cells, SIRT1 activators did not alter the adherence of Brucella or Salmonella Typhimurium. However, reduced uptake of Brucella was observed in cells treated with PIC and Rg3, and survival of Brucella within the cells was only observed to decrease in cells that were treated with Rg3, while PIC treatment reduced the intracellular survival of Salmonella. SIRT1 treatment in mice via oral route resulted in augmented Brucella resistance for PIC and Rg3, but not RES. PIC treatment favors Th2 immune response despite reduced serum proinflammatory cytokine production, while Rg3-treated mice displayed high IL-12 and IFN-γ serum production. Overall, our findings encourage further investigation into the complete mechanisms of action of the different SIRT1 activators used as well as their potential benefit as an effective alternative approach against intracellular and extracellular pathogens.

The In Vitro and In Vivo Effect of Lipoxygenase Pathway Inhibitors Nordihydroguaiaretic Acid and Its Derivative Tetra-O-methyl Nordihydroguaiaretic Acid against Brucella abortus 544.

This study investigated the contribution of lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibitors, nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA), tetra-O-methyl nordihydroguaiaretic acid (M4N) and zileuton (ZIL), and thromboxane A2 (TXA2) inhibitor 4,5-diphenylimidazole (DPI) in the proliferation of Brucella abortus infection. None of the compounds affected the uptake of Brucella into the macrophages. We determined the effect of neutralizing leukotriene B4 (LTB4) receptor and showed that the uptake of the bacteria was inhibited at 30 min post-infection. M4N treatment attenuated intracellular survival of Brucella at 2 h post-incubation but it was not observed in the succeeding time points. DPI treatment showed reduced survival of Brucella at 24 h post-incubation while blocking LTB4 receptor was observed to have a lower intracellular growth at 48 h post-incubation suggesting different action of the inhibitors in the course of the survival of Brucella within the cells. Reduced proliferation of the bacteria in the spleens of mice was observed in animals treated with ZIL or DPI. Increased serum cytokine level of TNF-α and MCP-1 was observed in mice treated with M4N or ZIL while a lower IFN-γ level in ZIL-treated mice and a higher IL-12 serum level in DPI-treated mice were observed at 7 d post-infection. At 14 d post-infection, ZIL-treated mice displayed reduced serum level of IL-12 and IL-10. Overall, inhibition of 5-LOX or TXA2 or a combination therapy promises a potential alternative therapy against B. abortus infection. Furthermore, strong ligands for LTB4 receptor could also be a good candidate for the control of Brucella infection.

Global metabolomic analysis of blood from mice infected with Brucella abortus.

To better understanding Brucella abortus infection, serum metabolites of B. abortus-infected and -uninfected mice were analyzed and twenty-one metabolites were tentatively identified at 3 and 14 days post-infection (d.p.i.). Level of most lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs) was found to increase in infected mice at 3 d.p.i., while it was decreased at 14 d.p.i. as compared to uninfected mice. In contrast, acylcarnitines were initially reduced at 3 d.p.i then elevated after two-weeks of infection, while hydroxysanthine was increased at 14 d.p.i. in infected mice. Our findings suggest that the significant changes in LPCs and other identified metabolites may serve as potential biomarkers in acute phase of B. abortus infection.

Protection of palmitic acid treatment in RAW264.7 cells and BALB/c mice during Brucella abortus 544 infection.

BACKGROUND: We previously elucidated the protective mechanism of Korean red ginseng oil (RGO) against Brucella abortus infection, and our phytochemical analysis revealed that palmitic acid (PA) was an abundant component of RGO. Consequently, we investigated the contribution of PA against B. abortus. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to investigate the efficacy of PA against B. abortus infection using a murine cell line and a murine model. METHODS: Cell viability, bactericidal, internalization, and intracellular replication, western blot, nitric oxide (NO), and superoxide (O2⁻) analyses and flow cytometry were performed to determine the effects of PA on the progression of B. abortus infection in macrophages. Flow cytometry for cytokine analysis of serum samples and bacterial counts from the spleens were performed to determine the effect of PA in a mouse model. RESULTS: PA did not affect the growth of B. abortus. PA treatment in macrophages did not change B. abortus uptake but it did attenuate the intracellular survivability of B. abortus. Incubation of cells with PA resulted in a modest increase in sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) expression. Compared to control cells, reduced nitrite accumulation, augmented O2⁻, and enhanced pro-inflammatory cytokine production were observed in PA-treated B. abortus-infected cells. Mice orally treated with PA displayed a decreased serum interleukin-10 level and enhanced bacterial resistance. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that PA participates in the control of B. abortus within murine macrophages, and the in vivo study results confirm its efficacy against the infection. However, further investigations are encouraged to completely characterize the mechanisms involved in the inhibition of B. abortus infection by fatty acids.

Formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2) antagonism is a potential target for the prevention of Brucella abortus 544 infection.

Here, we explore the potential role of formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2) during Brucella abortus infection. FPR2 manipulation affected B. abortus internalization but not its growth within macrophages. During the activation of FPR2 induced by its agonist AGP-8694, a high level of Brucella uptake was accompanied by an increase in ERK phosphorylation, while intracellular survival at 24 h postincubation was observed to be associated with slightly reduced nitrite accumulation but augmented superoxide anion production. Attenuated secretion of IL-6 and IL-10 were observed 48 h postincubation in the bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) treated with the FPR2 antagonist WRW4. An opposite pattern of bacterial uptake was observed upon treatment with the FPR2 antagonist, but no significant changes in the activation of MAPKs or the production of nitrite or superoxide anion were observed. Interestingly, AGP-8694 treatment of mice did not lead to differences in spleen or liver weight but slightly enhanced bacterial proliferation was observed in the spleen. Although the weights of the spleen or liver did not differ, WRW4 treatment led to reduced bacterial proliferation in the spleen. Furthermore, FPR2 antagonist treatment was associated with high serum levels of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-12, TNF-α, IFN-γ and MCP-1, while the production of TNF-α was inhibited in AGP-8694-treated mice. IL-6 and IL-10 levels were slightly increased in AGP-8694-treated mice at 24 h postinfection. Our findings demonstrated the contribution of FPR2 via manipulating this receptor using its reported agonist AGP-8694 and antagonist WRW4 in both in vitro and in vivo systems. Although activation of the receptor did not consistently induced Brucella infection, FPR2 inhibition may be a promising strategy to treat brucellosis in animals which encourages further investigation.

ß-Sitosterol Contributes in the Resistance to Invasion and Survival of Brucella abortus 544 within RAW264.7 Cells, and Cytokine Production with Reduced Susceptibility to Infection in BALB/c Mice.

We previously identified ß-sitosterol (BS) as one of the most abundant compounds found in Korean red ginseng oil. BS is a widely prevalent vegetable-derived phytosterol with many known health benefits. Here, we investigated the efficacy of BS against Brucella (B.) abortus infection. BS showed no effect on bacterial growth but attenuated internalization, intracellular survival and MAPKs-linked intracellular signaling in RAW264.7 cells. BS treatment in cells is also associated with increased nitrite concentration during infection at 24 h. Slightly enhanced resistance to B. abortus infection was observed in mice orally given BS, which could be mediated by induced production of proinflammatory cytokines. Taken together, our study demonstrates the contribution of BS treatment against B. abortus infection although further investigation is encouraged to maximize its beneficial effects against intracellular infection.

Modulatory Effect of Linoleic Acid During Brucella abortus 544 Infection in Murine Macrophage RAW264.7 Cells and Murine Model BALB/c Mice.

In this study, we investigated the effects of linoleic acid (LA) treatment on Brucella abortus infection in professional phagocyte RAW264.7 cells, particularly during the pathogens invasion and intracellular growth in these cells, as well as in murine model BALB/c mice focusing on bacterial splenic proliferation and immunoregulatory activities. LA inhibited the growth of Brucella in a doseand time-dependent manner. The ability of the pathogen to enter the phagocytes was inhibited as was its survival within these cells. This was accompanied by increased nitrite accumulation in these cells at 24 h post-infection. The concentration of LA used in the present study did not affect the total body weight or liver function of the mice. During Brucella infection, the total splenic weight of these animals was not changed; rather, resistance to bacterial proliferation was enhanced in the spleen. Furthermore, mice treated with LA displayed elevated levels of IL-12 and IFN-γ but reduced levels of IL-10 during infection. The findings in this study showed the regulatory role of LA against B. abortus infection suggesting its potential use in designing intervention strategy for brucellosis.