PMA synergistically enhances apicularen A-induced cytotoxicity by disrupting microtubule networks in HeLa cells.

BACKGROUND: Combination therapy is key to improving cancer treatment efficacy. Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), a well-known PKC activator, increases the cytotoxicity of several anticancer drugs. Apicularen A induces cytotoxicity in tumor cells through disrupting microtubule networks by tubulin down-regulation. In this study, we examined whether PMA increases apicularen A-induced cytotoxicity in HeLa cells. METHODS: Cell viability was examined by thiazolyl blue tetrazolium (MTT) assays. To investigate apoptotic potential of apicularen A, DNA fragmentation assays were performed followed by extracting genomic DNA, and caspase-3 activity assays were performed by fluorescence assays using fluorogenic substrate. The cell cycle distribution induced by combination with PMA and apicularen A was examined by flow cytometry after staining with propidium iodide (PI). The expression levels of target proteins were measured by Western blotting analysis using specific antibodies, and α-tubulin mRNA levels were assessed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). To examine the effect of combination of PMA and apicularen A on the microtubule architecture, α-tubulin protein and nuclei were visualized by immunofluorescence staining using an anti-α-tubulin antibody and PI, respectively. RESULTS: We found that apicularen A induced caspase-dependent apoptosis in HeLa cells. PMA synergistically increased cytotoxicity and apoptotic sub-G1 population induced by apicularen A. These effects were completely blocked by the PKC inhibitors Ro31-8220 and Go6983, while caspase inhibition by Z-VAD-fmk did not prevent cytotoxicity. RNA interference using siRNA against PKCα, but not PKCß and PKCγ, inhibited cytotoxicity induced by combination PMA and apicularen A. PMA increased the apicularen A-induced disruption of microtubule networks by further decreasing α- and ß-tubulin protein levels in a PKC-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the synergy between PMA and apicularen A is involved by PKCα activation and microtubule disruption, and that may inform the development of novel approaches to treat cancer.

Apicularen A acetate induces cell death via AIF translocation and disrupts the microtubule network by down-regulating tubulin in HM7 human colon cancer cells.

Apicularen A is a novel antitumor agent and strongly induces death in tumor cells. In this study, we synthesized apicularen A acetate, an acetyl derivative of apicularen A, and investigated its antitumor effect and mechanism in HM7 colon cancer cells. Apicularen A acetate induced apoptotic cell death and caspase-3 activation; however, the pan-caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk could not prevent this cell death. Apicularen A acetate induced the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and the translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) from mitochondria. In addition, apicularen A acetate significantly decreased tubulin mRNA and protein levels and induced disruption of microtubule networks. Taken together, these results indicate that the mechanism of apicularen A acetate involves caspase-independent apoptotic cell death and disruption of microtubule architecture.

Protein-bound polysaccharide from Phellinus linteus inhibits tumor growth, invasion, and angiogenesis and alters Wnt/ß-catenin in SW480 human colon cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: Polysaccharides extracted from the Phellinus linteus (PL) mushroom are known to possess anti-tumor effects. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for the anti-tumor properties of PL remain to be explored. Experiments were carried out to unravel the anticancer effects of PL. METHODS: The anti-cancer effects of PL were examined in SW480 colon cancer cells by evaluating cell proliferation, invasion and matrix metallo-proteinase (MMP) activity. The anti-angiogenic effects of PL were examined by assessing human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) proliferation and capillary tube formation. The in vivo effect of PL was evaluated in an athymic nude mouse SW480 tumor engraft model. RESULTS: PL (125-1000 µg/mL) significantly inhibited cell proliferation and decreased ß-catenin expression in SW480 cells. Expression of cyclin D1, one of the downstream-regulated genes of ß-catenin, and T-cell factor/lymphocyte enhancer binding factor (TCF/LEF) transcription activity were also significantly reduced by PL treatment. PL inhibited in vitro invasion and motility as well as the activity of MMP-9. In addition, PL treatment inhibited HUVEC proliferation and capillary tube formation. Tumor growth of SW480 cells implanted into nude mice was significantly decreased as a consequence of PL treatment, and tumor tissues from treated animals showed an increase in the apoptotic index and a decrease in ß-catenin expression. Moreover, the proliferation index and microvessel density were significantly decreased. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that PL suppresses tumor growth, invasion, and angiogenesis through the inhibition of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in certain colon cancer cells.

Omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids suppress pancreatic cancer cell growth in vitro and in vivo via downregulation of Wnt/Beta-catenin signaling.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: ω3-polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω3- PUFAs) are known to possess anticancer properties. However, the relationship between ω3-PUFAs and ß-catenin, one of the key components of the Wnt signaling pathway, in human pancreatic cancer remains poorly characterized. METHODS: Human pancreatic cancer cells (SW1990 and PANC-1) were exposed to two ω3-PUFAs, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), to investigate the relationship between ω3-PUFAs and the Wnt/ß-catenin signaling pathway in vitro. Mouse pancreatic cancer (PANC02) cells were implanted into fat-1 transgenic mice, which express ω3 desaturases and result in elevated levels of ω3-PUFAs endogenously. The tumor size, levels of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling molecules and apoptosis levels were analyzed to examine the influence of ω3-PUFAs in vivo. RESULTS: DHA and EPA significantly inhibited cell growth and increased cell death in pancreatic cancer cells. DHA also reduced ß-catenin expression, T cell factor/lymphoid-enhancing factor reporter activity and induced ß-catenin/Axin/GSK-3ß complex formation, a known precursor to ß-catenin degradation. Furthermore, Wnt3a, a natural canonical Wnt pathway ligand, reversed DHA-induced growth inhibition in PANC-1 cells. Immunohistochemical analysis showed aberrant upregulation and increased nuclear staining of ß-catenin in tumor tissues from pancreatic cancer patients. However, ß-catenin levels in tumor tissues from fat-1 transgenic mice were reduced with a significant increase in apoptosis compared with those from control mice. CONCLUSION: ω3-PUFAs may be an effective therapy for the chemoprevention and treatment of human pancreatic cancer. and IAP.

Expression regulation and function of Pref-1 during adipogenesis of human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs).

Preadipocyte Factor 1 (Pref-1), also known as Delta-like Protein 1 (DLK-1) is an epidermal growth factor-like domain-containing trans-membrane protein that is involved in adipogenesis and cell fate decision. Its function in adipogenesis is reported inconsistently based on different cellular model systems. Here, by using human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), we show that Pref-1 is modulated by both dexamethasone and 3-isobutyl-1methylxanthine (IBMX), two components of the adipogenic induction mixture during the adipogenesis in vitro. IBMX induces the expression of Pref-1 in a time- and dose-dependent manner through cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP independent pathway and attenuates adipocyte differentiation by down-regulating PPARgamma (peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma) expression. Dexamethasone, on the other hand, is capable of subduing the inhibitory effect of IBMX-induced Pref-1 and initiating the adipogenesis by up-regulating PPARgamma expression. Moreover, the treatment of IBMX or dexamethasone alone fails to develop MSCs into mature adipocytes, however, treating cells with both IBMX and dexamethasone leads to a complete adipocyte differentiation as evaluated by lipid-droplet formation. Taken together, our study demonstrates that IBMX accelerates accumulation of lipid in MSCs only under the circumstance that the negative effect of Pref-1 induced by IBMX on the adipogenesis is overcome by dexamethasone.

Downregulation of APE1/Ref-1 is involved in the senescence of mesenchymal stem cells.

The senescence of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) causes disruption of tissue and organ maintenance, and is thus an obstacle to stem cell-based therapies for disease. Although some researchers have studied changes in the characteristics of hMSCs (decreases in differentiation ability and self-renewal), comparing young and old ages, the mechanisms of stem cell senescence have not yet been defined. In this study, we developed a growth curve for human bone marrow derived MSCs (hBMSCs) which changes into a hyperbolic state after passage number 7. Senescence associated beta-galactosidase (SA beta-gal) staining of hBMSCs showed 10% in passage 9 and 45% in passage 11. We detected an increase in endogenous superoxide levels during senescence that correlated with senescence markers (SA beta-gal, hyperbolic growth curve). Interestingly, even though endogenous superoxide increased in a replicative senescence model, the expression of APE1/Ref-1, which is sensitive to intracellular redox state, decreased. These effects were confirmed in a stress-induced senescence model by exogenous treatment with H(2)O(2). This change is related to the p53 activity that negatively regulates APE1/Ref-1. p21 expression levels, which represent p53 activity, were transiently increased in passage 9, meaning that they correlated with the expression of APE1/Ref-1. Overexpression of APE1/Ref-1 suppressed superoxide production and decreased SA beta-gal in hBMSCs. In conclusion, intracellular superoxide accumulation appears to be the main cause of the senescence of hBMSCs, and overexpression of APE1/Ref-1 can rescue cells from the senescence phenotype. Maintaining characteristics of hBMSCs by regulating intracellular reactive oxygen species production can contribute to tissue regeneration and to improved cell therapy.

Apicularen A induces cell death through Fas ligand up-regulation and microtubule disruption by tubulin down-regulation in HM7 human colon cancer cells.

PURPOSE: Apicularen A has been shown to cause growth inhibition and apoptosis in several cancer cell lines. However, the mechanisms of apicularen A-induced cell death and in vivo effects remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms of apicularen A-induced cell death in HM7 human colon cancer cells in vitro and anticancer activity in vivo. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We tested cytotoxicity with a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, apoptosis with DNA fragmentation assay, mitochondrial membrane potential, and cell cycle with fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Caspase activation was done by fluorometry. Alterations of microtubule structure, tubulin protein, and mRNA level were assessed by immunofluorescence, Western blot, and reverse transcription-PCR. In vivo studies were assessed using nude mice tumor cell growth in xenograft model and liver colonization assay. RESULTS: Apicularen A treatment of HM7 cells inhibited cell growth and this inhibition was partially rescued by z-VAD-fmk. Apicularen A caused accumulation of sub-G(1)-G(0), DNA fragmentation, Fas ligand induction, and activation of caspase-8 and caspase-3, but mitochondrial membrane potential was not changed. Furthermore, beta-tubulin protein and mRNA were decreased by apicularen A, but in vitro polymerization of tubulin was not affected. Concurrently, apicularen A-treated cell showed disruption of microtubule architecture. In in vivo studies, apicularen A reduced tumor volume by approximately 72% at the end of a 15-day treatment. Moreover, apicularen A reduced liver colonization as much as 95.6% (50 microg/kg/d). CONCLUSION: Apicularen A induces cell death of HM7 cells through up-regulating Fas ligand and disruption of microtubule architecture with down-regulation of tubulin level. These findings indicate that apicularen A is a promising new microtubule-targeting compound.

Activity and expression of urokinase-type plasminogen activator and matrix metalloproteinases in human colorectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) are involved in colorectal cancer invasion and metastasis. There is still debate whether the activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 differs between tumors located in the colon and rectum. We designed this study to determine any differences in the expression of MMP-2, MMP-9 and uPA system between colon and rectal cancer tissues. METHODS: Cancer tissue samples were obtained from colon carcinoma (n = 12) and rectal carcinomas (n = 10). MMP-2 and MMP-9 levels were examined using gelatin zymography and Western blotting; their endogenous inhibitors, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), were assessed by Western blotting. uPA, uPAR and PAI-1 were examined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The activity of uPA was assessed by casein-plasminogen zymography. RESULTS: In both colon and rectal tumors, MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 protein levels were higher than in corresponding paired normal mucosa, while TIMP-2 level in tumors was significantly lower than in normal mucosa. The enzyme activities or protein levels of MMP-2, MMP-9 and their endogenous inhibitors did not reach a statistically significant difference between colon and rectal cancer compared with their normal mucosa. In rectal tumors, there was an increased activity of uPA compared with the activity in colon tumors (P = 0.0266), however urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) showed no significant difference between colon and rectal cancer tissues. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that uPA may be expressed differentially in colon and rectal cancers, however, the activities or protein levels of MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2, PAI-1 and uPAR are not affected by tumor location in the colon or the rectum.

Transcriptional repression of vimentin gene expression by pyrroline dithiocarbamate during 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-dependent differentiation of HL-60 cells.

Vimentin is a member of the intermediate filament family, and the NF-kappaB binding site is located in the human vimentin promoter. To gain insight into the role of NF-kappaB in the regulation of the vimentin gene during 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-dependent differentiation of HL-60 cells, the effect of pyrrolidine dithiocarbamete (PDTC) has been investigated using Northern blot hybridization and DNA mobility shift assay. PDTC inhibited macrophage-like morphologic change of HL-60 cells by TPA. TPA-dependent increase of vimentin mRNA level was decreased in a time- and dose-dependent manner by pretreatment with PDTC. One DNA-protein complex was formed by DNA mobility shift assay when the NF-kappaB or AP-1 binding sites were incubated with nuclear extract prepared from TPA-treated HL-60 cells, but no protein bound in control HL-60 cells without TPA. After PDTC pretreatment, NF-kappaB binding activity vanished but AP-1 binding activity was unchanged. Taken together, these results suggest that NF-kappaB may be an essential transacting factor for transcriptional repression of the vimentin gene by PDTC during TPA-dependent differentiation of HL-60 cells.

Phosphorylation of octamer-binding transcriptional factor may be correlated with H2B histone gene repression during 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate-dependent differentiation of HL-60 cells.

To gain insight on the role of transacting factors in the regulatory mechanism of H2B histone gene expression during the differentiation of HL-60 cells by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), the binding pattern of nuclear proteins to various elements in the human H2B histone gene upstream region have been investigated with DNase I footprinting and DNA mobility shift assay. The level of H2B histone mRNA rapidly reduced at 24 h in TPA-treated HL-60 cells. The H2B histone mRNA was repressed in proportion to the concentration of TPA. In DNase I footprinting analysis, one nuclear factor (octamer-binding transcription factor, OTF) bound at -42 bp (octamer motif), before and after TPA-induced differentiation of HL-60 cells. One DNA-protein complex (OTF) was formed by DNA mobility shift assay when octamer element was incubated with nuclear extract of undifferentiated HL-60 cells. In DNA mobilith shift assay, OTF vanished, and phosphorylated OTF (p-OTF) newly appeared during TPA-induced differentiation. p-OTF was not detected after pretreatment of the protein kinase C inhibitor, staurosporin, but was not changed after CHX treatment. TPA-induced repression of H2B histone mRNA was also restored after pretreatment of staurosporin. These results suggest that OTF is phosphorylated by protein kinase C during TPA-induced differentiation of HL-60 and the transcriptional repression of the H2B histone gene may be mediated by protein kinase C-dependent phosphorylation of OTF.

Gabexate mesilate inhibits colon cancer growth, invasion, and metastasis by reducing matrix metalloproteinases and angiogenesis.

Gabexate mesilate (GM), a synthetic protease inhibitor, has an antiproteinase activity on various types of plasma serine proteases. However, its role on matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) has not been identified. In this study, we investigated the effect of GM on MMPs and on the invasion and metastasis of human colon cancer cell lines and neoangiogenesis. The activities of MMPs secreted from these cells were significantly reduced by GM but unaffected by the serine protease inhibitor aprotinin. GM directly inhibited purified progelatinase A derived from T98G human glioblastoma cells. In vitro, GM significantly reduced the invasive ability of colon cancer cells but not cellular motility, whereas aprotinin affected neither. Liver metastatic ability and tumorigenic potential in nude mice were remarkably reduced on treatment with GM. Immunohistochemical analysis of GM-treated tumors in mice showed a marked increase in apoptosis and a significant reduction in tumor angiogenesis. Human umbilical vein endothelial cell proliferation, tube formation, and neoangiogenesis in the rabbit cornea and Matrigel implanted in mice were significantly inhibited by GM. These results suggest that GM is a novel inhibitor of MMPs and that it may inhibit the invasion and metastasis of human colon cancer cells by blocking MMPs and neoangiogenesis.

Differential regulation of vimentin mRNA by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate and all-trans-retinoic acid correlates with motility of Hep 3B human hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Vimentin is a growth-related gene and often expressed when epithelial cells are stimulated to proliferate by growth factors. In cancer, vimentin expression is associated with a dedifferentiated malignant phenotype, increased motility, invasive ability and poor prognosis. We studied the regulation of vimentin mRNA and multistep invasion processes following treatment of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA) and all-trans-retinoic acid (RA) in Hep 3B hepatocellular carcinoma cells. TPA showed marked induction of vimentin mRNA, while RA decreased the mRNA level. TPA or RA did not affect cell proliferation, cell-matrix protein adhesion, and matrix metalloproteinases and urokinase plasminogen activator activities. In vitro invasion ability was significantly increased or decreased with TPA or RA treatment, paralleled to the in vitro motile activity, respectively. These findings suggest that TPA and RA could modulate the invasive potential of Hep 3B cells by altering cellular motility related to differential regulation of vimentin mRNA.

ATF is important to late S phase-dependent regulation of DNA topoisomerase IIalpha gene expression in HeLa cells.

DNA topoisomerase IIalpha (Topo IIalpha) is regulated in late S phase-dependent manner. To identify late S phase-dependent cis-acting elements of Topo IIalpha gene, we have investigated the synchronized HeLa cells with chloramphenicol acetyltransferase and DNase I footprinting assays. The level of Topo IIalpha mRNA increased after release from aphidicolin block and reached a maximum in 8h (late S phase) in HeLa cells, and Topo II unknotting activity was also in parallel with the level of Topo IIalpha mRNA. The late S phase-regulatory element was found to be located in the region containing ATF-binding element between -290 and -90bp and the region was required for a maximal stimulation during late S phase. DNase I footprinting assay showed that ATF-binding element and novel cis-acting element (Topo IIalpha-specific sequence) were the principal protein-binding sites and the proteins interacting with these elements were induced during late S phase. One DNA-protein complex was formed by DNA mobility shift assay when ATF-binding site was incubated with nuclear extract prepared from late S phase cells, but no protein bound in non-S phase cells. Taken together, these results suggest that ATF may be essential transacting factor for maximal expression of Topo IIalpha gene during late S phase in HeLa cells.

Protein-bound polysaccharide from Phellinus linteus induces G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis in SW480 human colon cancer cells.

The cytotoxic mechanism of protein-bound polysaccharide isolated from Phellinus linteus (PL, Mesima) has been investigated. PL inhibited the proliferation and colony formation of SW480 human colon cancer cells. Flow cytometry analysis showed that PL increased the populations of both apoptotic sub-G1 and G2/M phase. The result obtained from TUNEL assay corroborated apoptosis which was shown in flow cytometry. Western blot analysis suggested that PL-induced apoptosis and growth inhibition were associated with decrease in Bcl-2, increase of the release of cytochrome c, and reduced expression of cyclin B1. These results suggest that PL has a direct antitumor effect through apoptosis and cell cycle blockade in certain cancer cells.

Activation of epidermal growth factor receptor is responsible for pervanadate-induced phospholipase D activation.

Pervanadate, a complex of vanadate and H(2)O(2), has an insulin mimetic effect, and acts as an inhibitor of protein tyrosine phosphatase. Pervanadate-induced phospholipase D (PLD) activation is known to be dependent on the tyrosine phosphorylation of cellular proteins and protein kinase C (PKC) activation, and yet underlying molecular mechanisms are not clearly understood. Here, we investigated the signaling pathway of pervanadate-induced PLD activation in Rat2 fibroblasts. Pervanadate increased PLD activity in dose- and time- dependent manner. Protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor, genistein, blocked PLD activation. Interestingly, AG-1478, a specific inhibitor of the tyrosine kinase activity of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) blocked not only the PLD activation completely but also phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). However, AG-1295, an inhibitor specific for the tyrosine kinase activity of pletlet drived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) did not show any effect on the PLD activation by pervanadate. We further found that pervanadate increased phosphorylation levels of p38, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK). SB203580, a p38 MAPK inhibitor, blocked the PLD activation completely. However, the inhibitions of ERK by the treatment of PD98059 or of JNK by the overexpression of JNK interacting peptide JBD did not show any effect on pervanadate-induced PLD activation. Inhibition or down-regulation of PKC did not alter the pervanadate-induced PLD activation in Rat2 cells. Thus, these results suggest that pervanadate-induced PLD activation is coupled to the transactivation of EGFR by pervanadate resulting in the activation of p38 MAP kinase.

The omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid DHA induces simultaneous apoptosis and autophagy via mitochondrial ROS-mediated Akt-mTOR signaling in prostate cancer cells expressing mutant p53.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) induces autophagy-associated apoptotic cell death in wild-type p53 cancer cells via regulation of p53. The present study investigated the effects of DHA on PC3 and DU145 prostate cancer cell lines harboring mutant p53. Results show that, in addition to apoptosis, DHA increased the expression levels of lipidated form LC3B and potently stimulated the autophagic flux, suggesting that DHA induces both autophagy and apoptosis in cancer cells expressing mutant p53. DHA led to the generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), as shown by the mitochondrial ROS-specific probe mitoSOX. Similarly, pretreatment with the antioxidant N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC) markedly inhibited both the autophagy and the apoptosis triggered by DHA, indicating that mitochondrial ROS mediate the cytotoxicity of DHA in mutant p53 cells. Further, DHA reduced the levels of phospho-Akt and phospho-mTOR in a concentration-dependent manner, while NAC almost completely blocked that effect. Collectively, these findings present a novel mechanism of ROS-regulated apoptosis and autophagy that involves Akt-mTOR signaling in prostate cancer cells with mutant p53 exposed to DHA.

DJ-1 null dopaminergic neuronal cells exhibit defects in mitochondrial function and structure: involvement of mitochondrial complex I assembly.

DJ-1 is a Parkinson's disease-associated gene whose protein product has a protective role in cellular homeostasis by removing cytosolic reactive oxygen species and maintaining mitochondrial function. However, it is not clear how DJ-1 regulates mitochondrial function and why mitochondrial dysfunction is induced by DJ-1 deficiency. In a previous study we showed that DJ-1 null dopaminergic neuronal cells exhibit defective mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I activity. In the present article we investigated the role of DJ-1 in complex I formation by using blue native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and 2-dimensional gel analysis to assess native complex status. On the basis of these experiments, we concluded that DJ-1 null cells have a defect in the assembly of complex I. Concomitant with abnormal complex I formation, DJ-1 null cells show defective supercomplex formation. It is known that aberrant formation of the supercomplex impairs the flow of electrons through the channels between respiratory chain complexes, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction. We took two approaches to study these mitochondrial defects. The first approach assessed the structural defect by using both confocal microscopy with MitoTracker staining and electron microscopy. The second approach assessed the functional defect by measuring ATP production, O(2) consumption, and mitochondrial membrane potential. Finally, we showed that the assembly defect as well as the structural and functional abnormalities in DJ-1 null cells could be reversed by adenovirus-mediated overexpression of DJ-1, demonstrating the specificity of DJ-1 on these mitochondrial properties. These mitochondrial defects induced by DJ-1mutation may be a pathological mechanism for the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease.

Docosahexaenoic acid induces autophagy through p53/AMPK/mTOR signaling and promotes apoptosis in human cancer cells harboring wild-type p53.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has been reported to induce tumor cell death by apoptosis. However, little is known about the effects of DHA on autophagy, another complex well-programmed process characterized by the sequestration of cytoplasmic material within autophagosomes. Here, we show that DHA increased both the level of microtubule-associated protein light-chain 3 and the number of autophagic vacuoles without impairing autophagic vesicle turnover, indicating that DHA induces not only apoptosis but also autophagy. We also observed that DHA-induced autophagy was accompanied by p53 loss. Inhibition of p53 increased DHA-induced autophagy and prevention of p53 degradation significantly led to the attenuation of DHA-induced autophagy, suggesting that DHA-induced autophagy is mediated by p53. Further experiments showed that the mechanism of DHA-induced autophagy associated with p53 attenuation involved an increase in the active form of AMP-activated protein kinase and a decrease in the activity of mammalian target of rapamycin. In addition, compelling evidence for the interplay between autophagy and apoptosis induced by DHA is supported by the findings that autophagy inhibition suppressed apoptosis and further autophagy induction enhanced apoptosis in response to DHA treatment. Overall, our results demonstrate that autophagy contributes to the cytotoxicity of DHA in cancer cells harboring wild-type p53.

Radiation-induced thymidine phosphorylase upregulation in rectal cancer is mediated by tumor-associated macrophages by monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 from cancer cells.

PURPOSE: The mechanisms of thymidine phosphorylase (TP) regulation induced by radiation therapy (XRT) in various tumors are poorly understood. We investigated the effect and mechanisms of preoperative XRT on TP expression in rectal cancer tissues. METHODS AND MATERIALS: TP expression and CD68 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) levels in rectal cancer tissues and cancer cell lines were evaluated before and after XRT in Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, enzyme-linked immunoassay, and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction studies. Isolated peripheral blood monocytes were used in the study of chemotaxis under the influence of MCP-1 released by irradiated colon cancer cells. RESULTS: Expression of TP was significantly elevated by 9 Gy of XRT in most rectal cancer tissues but not by higher doses of XRT. In keeping with the close correlation of the increase in both TP expression and the number of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), anti-TP immunoreactivity was found in the CD68-positive TAMs and not the neoplastic cells. Expression of MCP-1 was increased in most cases after XRT, and this increase was strongly correlated with TP expression. However, this increase in MCP-1 expression occurred in tumor cells and not stromal cells. The XRT upregulated MCP-1 mRNA and also triggered the release of MCP-1 protein from cultured colon cancer cells. The supernatant of irradiated colon cancer cells showed strong chemotactic activity for monocyte migration, but this activity was completely abolished by neutralizing antibody. CONCLUSIONS: Use of XRT induces MCP-1 expression in cancer cells, which causes circulating monocytes to be recruited into TAMs, which then upregulate TP expression in rectal cancer tissues.

The tumorigenic, invasive and metastatic potential of epithelial and round subpopulations of the SW480 human colon cancer cell line.

It has been reported that the SW480 human colon cancer cell line consists of E-type and R-type cells. The long-term tumorigenic potential, invasive and metastatic properties of these subclones have not been characterized. E-type and R-type cells were subcloned using limiting dilution methods from parental SW480 cells. The cell growth rate was determined by MTT colorimetric assay, and colony forming efficiency was analyzed using Matrigel-coated plates. The activity of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) was assessed by zymography. Invasive and locomotive ability was analyzed using transwell chambers. In situ apoptosis detection of these subclones was also performed. In vivo long-term tumorigenicity and nodal metastasis were evaluated using nude mice. E-type cells produced spontaneously regressive tumors in spite of invasion and lymph node metastasis. In contrast, R-type cells revealed progressively growing tumors without invasion or metastasis. E-type cells exhibited increased apoptosis and invasive and motile ability, as well as strong MMP-9 and -2 activity. Although phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate treatment induced MMP-9 activity in E-type cells, it had no effect on R-type cells. These findings suggest that E- and R-type cells may have different biological properties in terms of colon cancer progression, regression, invasion and nodal metastasis, and might serve as a useful model for these studies.