Evidence of bone marrow downregulation in brain-dead rats.

Experimental findings support the evidence of a persistent leucopenia triggered by brain death (BD). This study aimed to investigate leucocyte behaviour in bone marrow and blood after BD in rats. BD was induced using intracranial balloon catheter inflation. Sham-operated (SH) rats were trepanned only. Thereafter bone marrow cells were harvested every six hours from the femoral cavity and used for total and differential counts. They were analysed further by flow cytometry to characterize lymphocyte subsets, granulocyte adhesion molecules expression and apoptosis/necrosis [annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) protocol]. BD rats exhibited a reduction in bone marrow cells due to a reduction in lymphocytes (40%) and segmented cells (45%). Bone marrow lymphocyte subsets were similar in BD and SH rats (CD3, P = 0.1; CD4, P = 0.4; CD3/CD4, P = 0.4; CD5, P = 0.4, CD3/CD5, P = 0.2; CD8, P = 0.8). Expression of L-selectin and beta2 -integrins on granulocytes did not differ (CD11a, P = 0.9; CD11b/c, P = 0.7; CD62L, P = 0.1). There were no differences in the percentage of apoptosis and necrosis (Annexin V, P = 0.73; PI, P = 0.21; Annexin V/PI, P = 0.29). In conclusion, data presented suggest that the downregulation of the bone marrow is triggered by brain death itself, and it is not related to changes in lymphocyte subsets, granulocyte adhesion molecules expression or apoptosis and necrosis.

Long non-coding RNA INXS is a critical mediator of BCL-XS induced apoptosis.

BCL-X mRNA alternative splicing generates pro-apoptotic BCL-XS or anti-apoptotic BCL-XL gene products and the mechanism that regulates splice shifting is incompletely understood. We identified and characterized a long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) named INXS, transcribed from the opposite genomic strand of BCL-X, that was 5- to 9-fold less abundant in tumor cell lines from kidney, liver, breast and prostate and in kidney tumor tissues compared with non-tumors. INXS is an unspliced 1903 nt-long RNA, is transcribed by RNA polymerase II, 5'-capped, nuclear enriched and binds Sam68 splicing-modulator. Three apoptosis-inducing agents increased INXS lncRNA endogenous expression in the 786-O kidney tumor cell line, increased BCL-XS/BCL-XL mRNA ratio and activated caspases 3, 7 and 9. These effects were abrogated in the presence of INXS knockdown. Similarly, ectopic INXS overexpression caused a shift in splicing toward BCL-XS and activation of caspases, thus leading to apoptosis. BCL-XS protein accumulation was detected upon INXS overexpression. In a mouse xenograft model, intra-tumor injections of an INXS-expressing plasmid caused a marked reduction in tumor weight, and an increase in BCL-XS isoform, as determined in the excised tumors. We revealed an endogenous lncRNA that induces apoptosis, suggesting that INXS is a possible target to be explored in cancer therapies.

Comparative effect of FGF2, synthetic peptides 1-28 N-POMC and ACTH on proliferation in rat adrenal cell primary cultures.

There is evidence that pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)-derived peptides other than adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) have a role in adrenal cell proliferation. We compared the activity of synthetic rat N-terminal POMC fragment 1-28 with disulfide bridges (N-POMC(w)) and without disulfide bridges (N-POMC(w/o)), with the activity of fibroblast growth factor (FGF2), a widely studied adrenal growth factor, and ACTH, in well-characterized pure cultures of both isolated adrenal Glomerulosa (G) and Fasciculata/Reticularis (F/R) cells. Three days of FGF2-treatment had a proliferative effect similar to serum, and synthetic peptide N-POMC(w) induced proliferation more efficiently than N-POMC(w/o). Moreover, both induced proliferation via the ERK1/2 pathway. In contrast, sustained ACTH treatment decreased proliferation and viability through apoptosis induction, but not necrosis, and independently of PKA and PKC pathways. Further elucidation of 1-28 POMC signal transduction is of interest, and primary cultures of adrenal cells were found to be useful for examining the trophic activity of this peptide.

Sialic acid residues are essential for the anaphylactic activity of murine IgG1 antibodies.

Glycosylation of the Ab molecule is essential for maintaining the functional structure of Fc region and consequently for Ab-mediated effector functions, such as binding to cells or complement system activation. Alterations in the composition of the sugar moiety can dramatically influence Ab activity; however, it is not completely clear how differences in the N-linked oligosaccharide structure impact the biological function of Abs. We have described that murine IgG1 Abs can be separated according to their ability to elicit in vivo anaphylaxis in a fraction of anaphylactic and other of non-anaphylactic molecules. Furthermore, we showed that the N-linked oligosaccharide chain is essential for the structural conformation of the anaphylactic IgG1, the binding to FcgammaRIII on mast cells, and, consequently, for the ability to mediate anaphylactic reactions. In this study, we evaluated the contribution of individual sugar residues to this biological function. Differences in the glycan composition were observed when we analyzed oligosaccharide chains from anaphylactic or non-anaphylactic IgG1, mainly the presence of more sialic acid and fucose residues in anaphylactic molecules. Interestingly, the enzymatic removal of terminal sialic acid residues in anaphylactic IgG1 resulted in loss of the ability to trigger mast cell degranulation and in vivo anaphylactic reaction, similarly to the deglycosylated IgG1 Ab. In contrast, fucose removal did not affect the anaphylactic function. Therefore, we demonstrated that the ability of murine IgG1 Abs to mediate anaphylaxis is directly dependent on the amount of sialic acid residues associated to the oligosaccharide chain attached to the Fc region of these molecules.

CPDs and 6-4PPs play different roles in UV-induced cell death in normal and NER-deficient human cells.

Ultraviolet (UV) light generates two major DNA lesions: cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and pyrimidine-(6-4)-pyrimidone photoproducts (6-4PPs), but the specific participation of these two lesions in the deleterious effects of UV is a longstanding question. In order to discriminate the precise role of unrepaired CPDs and 6-4PPs in UV-induced responses triggering cell death, human fibroblasts were transduced by recombinant adenoviruses carrying the CPD-photolyase or 6-4PP-photolyase cDNAs. Both photolyases were able to prevent UV-induced apoptosis in cells deficient for nucleotide excision repair (NER) to a similar extent, while in NER-proficient cells UV-induced apoptosis was prevented only by CPD-photolyase, with no effects observed when 6-4PPs were removed by the specific photolyase. These results strongly suggest that both CPDs and 6-4PPs contribute to UV-induced apoptosis in NER-deficient cells, while in NER-proficient cells, CPDs are the only lesions responsible for UV-killing, probably due to the rapid repair of 6-4PPs by NER. As a consequence, the difference in skin photosensitivity, including carcinogenesis, of most of the xeroderma pigmentosum patients and of normal people is probably not only a quantitative aspect, but depends on the type of DNA damage induced by sunlight and its rate of repair.

High molecular weight components containing N-linked oligosaccharides of Ascaris suum extract inhibit the dendritic cells activation through DC-SIGN and MR.

Helminths, as well as their secretory/excretory products, induce a tolerogenic immune microenvironment. High molecular weight components (PI) from Ascaris suum extract down-modulate the immune response against ovalbumin (OVA). The PI exerts direct effect on dendritic cells (DCs) independent of TLR 2, 4 and MyD88 molecule and, thus, decreases the T lymphocytes response. Here, we studied the glycoconjugates in PI and the role of C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), DC-SIGN and MR, in the modulation of DCs activity. Our data showed the presence of glycoconjugates with high mannose- and complex-type N-linked oligosaccharide chains and phosphorylcholine residues on PI. In addition, these N-linked glycoconjugates inhibited the DCs maturation induced by LPS. The binding and internalization of PI-Alexa were decreased on DCs previously incubated with mannan, anti-DC-SIGN and/or anti-MR antibodies. In agreement with this, the incubation of DCs with mannan, anti-DC-SIGN and/or anti-MR antibodies abolished the down-modulatory effect of PI on these cells. It was also observed that the blockage of CLRs, DC-SIGN and MR on DCs reverted the inhibitory effect of PI in in vitro T cells proliferation. Therefore, our data show the involvement of DC-SIGN and MR in the recognition and consequent modulatory effect of N-glycosylated components of PI on DCs.

BCR-ABL1-induced downregulation of WASP in chronic myeloid leukemia involves epigenetic modification and contributes to malignancy.

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a myeloproliferative disease caused by the BCR-ABL1 tyrosine kinase (TK). The development of TK inhibitors (TKIs) revolutionized the treatment of CML patients. However, TKIs are not effective to those at advanced phases when amplified BCR-ABL1 levels and increased genomic instability lead to secondary oncogenic modifications. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) is an important regulator of signaling transduction in hematopoietic cells and was shown to be an endogenous inhibitor of the c-ABL TK. Here, we show that the expression of WASP decreases with the progression of CML, inversely correlates with the expression of BCR-ABL1 and is particularly low in blast crisis. Enforced expression of BCR-ABL1 negatively regulates the expression of WASP. Decreased expression of WASP is partially due to DNA methylation of the proximal WASP promoter. Importantly, lower levels of WASP in CML advanced phase patients correlate with poorer overall survival (OS) and is associated with TKI response. Interestingly, enforced expression of WASP in BCR-ABL1-positive K562 cells increases the susceptibility to apoptosis induced by TRAIL or chemotherapeutic drugs and negatively modulates BCR-ABL1-induced tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, our data reveal a novel molecular mechanism that operates in BCR-ABL1-induced tumorigenesis that can be used to develop new strategies to help TKI-resistant, CML patients in blast crisis (BC).

Crotoxin from Crotalus durissus terrificus is able to down-modulate the acute intestinal inflammation in mice.

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) is the result of dysregulation of mucosal innate and adaptive immune responses. Factors such as genetic, microbial and environmental are involved in the development of these disorders. Accordingly, animal models that mimic human diseases are tools for the understanding the immunological processes of the IBD as well as to evaluate new therapeutic strategies. Crotoxin (CTX) is the main component of Crotalus durissus terrificus snake venom and has an immunomodulatory effect. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the modulatory effect of CTX in a murine model of colitis induced by 2,4,6- trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). The CTX was administered intraperitoneally 18 hours after the TNBS intrarectal instillation in BALB/c mice. The CTX administration resulted in decreased weight loss, disease activity index (DAI), macroscopic tissue damage, histopathological score and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity analyzed after 4 days of acute TNBS colitis. Furthermore, the levels of TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6 were lower in colon tissue homogenates of TNBS-mice that received the CTX when compared with untreated TNBS mice. The analysis of distinct cell populations obtained from the intestinal lamina propria showed that CTX reduced the number of group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC3) and Th17 population; CTX decreased IL-17 secretion but did not alter the frequency of CD4+Tbet+ T cells induced by TNBS instillation in mice. In contrast, increased CD4+FoxP3+ cell population as well as secretion of TGF-ß, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was observed in TNBS-colitis mice treated with CTX compared with untreated TNBS-colitis mice. In conclusion, the CTX is able to modulate the intestinal acute inflammatory response induced by TNBS, resulting in the improvement of clinical status of the mice. This effect of CTX is complex and involves the suppression of the pro-inflammatory environment elicited by intrarectal instillation of TNBS due to the induction of a local anti-inflammatory profile in mice.

Anaphylactic and non-anaphylactic murine IgG1 differ in their ability to bind to mast cells: relevance of proper glycosylation of the molecule.

We have previously shown that murine IgG1 antibodies comprise two functionally distinct types regarding their ability to induce mast cell degranulation. In this work, we identified two IgG1-producing hybridomas, both with the same antigenic specificity (anti-DNP), but different in vivo anaphylactic activities. Whereas one of them secretes the anaphylactic IgG1 antibody, as assessed by passive cutaneous anaphylaxis, the other produces the non-anaphylactic IgG1 molecule. The evaluation of the ability of both types of IgG1 to bind to and activate a mouse mast cell line revealed that the anaphylactic IgG1 has a higher binding capacity and releases more beta-hexosaminidase from mast cells than the non-anaphylactic IgG1. Aglycosylated IgG1 obtained by treatment of the anaphylactic IgG1-producing hybridoma line with an inhibitor of N-glycosylation failed to elicit anaphylaxis. In addition, a goat anti-mouse IgG1 antibody reacted less with this aglycosylated IgG1 than with the glycosylated form. These results suggest that the anaphylactic activity of IgG1 antibodies is closely related to their structural conformation and the proper N-glycosylation of these molecules. Finally, the difference in the anaphylactic property between the two types of IgG1 seems to be primarily due to binding to the mast cell surface.

TLR2- and 4-independent immunomodulatory effect of high molecular weight components from Ascaris suum.

Components of high molecular-weight (PI) obtained from Ascaris suum extract down-regulate the Th1/Th2-related immune responses induced by ovalbumin (OVA)-immunization in mice. Furthermore, the PI down-modulates the ability of dendritic cells (DCs) to activate T lymphocytes by an IL-10-mediated mechanism. Here, we evaluated the role of toll like receptors 2 and 4 (TLR2 and 4) in the modulatory effect of PI on OVA-specific immune response and the PI interference on DC full activation. An inhibition of OVA-specific cellular and humoral responses were observed in wild type (WT) or in deficient in TLR2 (TLR2(-/-)) or 4 (TLR4(-/-)) mice immunized with OVA plus PI when compared with OVA-immunized mice. Low expression of class II MHC, CD40, CD80 and CD86 molecules was observed in lymph node (LN) cells from WT, TLR2(-/-) or TLR4(-/-) mice immunized with OVA plus PI compared with OVA-primed cells. We also verified that PI was able to modulate the activation of DCs derived from bone marrow of WT, TLR2(-/-) or TLR4(-/-) mice induced in vitro by agonists of TLRs, as observed by a decreased expression of class II MHC and costimulatory molecules and by low secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Its effect was accompanied by IL-10 synthesis. In this sense, the modulatory effect of PI on specific-immune response and DC activation is independent of TLR2 or TLR4.

Differential Antitumor Effects of IgG and IgM Monoclonal Antibodies and Their Synthetic Complementarity-Determining Regions Directed to New Targets of B16F10-Nex2 Melanoma Cells.

Malignant melanoma has increased incidence worldwide and causes most skin cancer-related deaths. A few cell surface antigens that can be targets of antitumor immunotherapy have been characterized in melanoma. This is an expanding field because of the ineffectiveness of conventional cancer therapy for the metastatic form of melanoma. In the present work, antimelanoma monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) were raised against B16F10 cells (subclone Nex4, grown in murine serum), with novel specificities and antitumor effects in vitro and in vivo. MAb A4 (IgG2ak) recognizes a surface antigen on B16F10-Nex2 cells identified as protocadherin beta(13). It is cytotoxic in vitro and in vivo to B16F10-Nex2 cells as well as in vitro to human melanoma cell lines. MAb A4M (IgM) strongly reacted with nuclei of permeabilized murine tumor cells, recognizing histone 1. Although it is not cytotoxic in vitro, similarly with mAb A4, mAb A4M significantly reduced the number of lung nodules in mice challenged intravenously with B16F10-Nex2 cells. The V(H) CDR3 peptide from mAb A4 and V(L) CDR1 and CDR2 from mAb A4M showed significant cytotoxic activities in vitro, leading tumor cells to apoptosis. A cyclic peptide representing A4 CDR H3 competed with mAb A4 for binding to melanoma cells. MAb A4M CDRs L1 and L2 in addition to the antitumor effect also inhibited angiogenesis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells in vitro. As shown in the present work, mAbs A4 and A4M and selected CDR peptides are strong candidates to be developed as drugs for antitumor therapy for invasive melanoma.

Immunosuppressive components of Ascaris suum down-regulate expression of costimulatory molecules and function of antigen-presenting cells via an IL-10-mediated mechanism.

High-molecular-weight components (PI) of Ascaris suum suppress both cell-mediated and humoral responses against ovalbumin (OVA) via an IL-4/IL-10-dependent mechanism. The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of PI on the ability of APC to activate T cells and the role of IL-10 in this process. Flow cytometry analyses of MHC class II, CD80, CD86 and CD40 molecules on LN cells from mice immunized with OVA or OVA+PI showed that PI inhibits expression of these molecules on unfractionated cells and on purified CD11c(+) cells. A low proliferative response was obtained when OVA-specific TCR-Tg T cells were incubated with CD11c(+) cells from OVA+PI-immunized mice pulsed with OVA, when compared to those incubated with cells from OVA-immunized mice. Similar results were obtained using as APC CD11c(+) cells from OVA-immunized mice pulsed with OVA+PI, which also expressed less of the four markers. The inhibitory effect of PI on both the expression of costimulatory molecules and the induction of T cell proliferation was abolished in IL-10-deficient mice. Our data indicate that the potent immunosuppressive effect of A. suum extract components on the host immune system is primarily related to their property of down-regulating the Ag-presenting ability of DC via an IL-10-mediated mechanism.

IL-4 from Th2-type cells suppresses induction of delayed-type hypersensitivity elicited shortly after immunization.

The pure delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction obtained in 4-day ovalbumin-sensitized mice after antigen challenge in the footpad was abrogated by transfer of in vitro expanded, antigen-specific lymphoblasts derived from ovalbumin-hyperimmunized donors (high antibody producers), 12 h before immunization. This effect was specific inasmuch as Trypanosoma cruzi-specific blasts derived from Tc-Ag-hyperimmunized mice did not inhibit delayed-type hypersensitivity in ovalbumin-immunized recipients. The ovalbumin-specific blasts displayed a Th2 cytokine profile, secreting IL-4 and IL-10 upon restimulation in vitro with ovalbumin, but not IFN-gamma or IL-2. In addition, recipients of such cells produced much more IgG1 and IgE antibodies. When the frequency of T-cell blasts was enriched among these cells, transfer of four million cells was enough to prevent the induction of delayed-type hypersensitivity. Neutralization of IL-4 alone just before cell transfer not only restored the delayed-type hyper-sensitivity reaction, but also maintained it in a plateau for at least 72 h after challenge. Recipients treated in this way also showed a shift back towards a Th1 phenotype, indicated by the increase in IL-2, IFN-gamma and IL-12 synthesis. No synergistic action was observed when IL-4 and IL-10 were concomitantly neutralized. These results indicate that activation of Ag-specific Th2 cells early in the course of the immune response to a protein antigen provides an immunological environment rich in IL-4, thus leading to the inhibition of cell-mediated immunity.

Resistant mice lacking interleukin-12 become susceptible to Trypanosoma cruzi infection but fail to mount a T helper type 2 response.

Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is essential to resistance to Trypanosoma cruzi infection because it stimulates the synthesis of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) that activates macrophages to a parasiticidal effect. Investigation of mice deprived of IL-12 genes (IL-12 knockout mice) has confirmed the important role of IL-12 and IFN-gamma in controlling parasitism in T. cruzi infection. However, it has not yet been addressed whether a shift towards a T helper type 2 (Th2) pattern of cytokine response occurred in these mice that might have contributed to the aggravation of the infection caused by IL-12 deprivation. We examined the course of T. cruzi (Y strain) infection and the regulation of cytokine responses and nitric oxide production in C57BL/6 IL-12 p40-knockout mice. The mutant mice were extremely susceptible to the infection as evidenced by increased parasitaemia, tissue parasitism and mortality in comparison with the control C57BL/6 mouse strain (wild-type) that is resistant to T. cruzi. A severe depletion of parasite-antigen-specific IFN-gamma response, without an increase in IL-4 or IL-10 production, accompanied by reduced levels of nitric oxide production was observed in IL-12 knockout mice. We found no evidence of a shift towards a Th2-type cytokine response. In IL-12 knockout mice, the residual IFN-gamma production is down-regulated by IL-10 but not by IL-4 and nitric oxide production is stimulated by tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Parasite-specific immunoglobulin G1 antibody levels were similar in IL-12 knockout and wild-type mice, whereas IL-12 knockout mice had much higher levels of immunoglobulin G2b.

IL-4 and IL-10 are essential for immunosuppression induced by high molecular weight proteins from Ascaris suum.

The extract from Ascaris suum worms (Asc) impairs Th1 and Th2 responses to a non-related antigen, i.e. ovalbumin (OVA). Its suppressive capacity is due to high molecular weight components present in a gel filtration fraction (PI). This fraction is able to elicit IL-4 and IL-10 secretion. Interestingly enough, it induces anti-PI non-anaphylactic IgG1 synthesis through the action of IL-12/IFN-gamma. Here, we investigated the down-regulation of the immune response to OVA by PI in IL-12, IFN-gamma, IL-4 or IL-10 C57BL/6 knockout mice immunized with OVA+PI in adjuvant. OVA-induced delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions, secretion of IL-2 and IFN-gamma, and IgG1, IgG2c and IgE antibody production were suppressed by PI in wild-type mice, as well as in IL-12- or IFN-gamma-deficient mice. In contrast, PI had no effect on anti-OVA IgE production and DTH, and induced only a partial suppression of IgG1 and IFN-gamma in IL-10(-/-) mice. The experiments also showed that IL-4 was involved in the PI-induced suppression of IgG2c antibodies and IL-2 secretion. Finally, down-regulation of IFN-gamma was not seen in mice lacking both IL-4 and IL-10, i.e. IL-4(-/-) mice treated with anti-IL-10 antibodies before immunization. These results exclude the participation of IL-12 and IFN-gamma in PI-induced immunosuppression, and highlight the essential role of IL-10 in the suppression of OVA-specific Th2-related parameters, as well as the cooperation between IL-10 and IL-4 in the suppression of Th1-related parameters.