Redox Imaging Using Cardiac Myocyte-Specific Transgenic Biosensor Mice.

RATIONALE: Changes in redox potentials of cardiac myocytes are linked to several cardiovascular diseases. Redox alterations are currently mostly described qualitatively using chemical sensors, which however do not allow quantifying redox potentials, lack specificity, and the possibility to analyze subcellular domains. Recent advances to quantitatively describe defined redox changes include the application of genetically encoded redox biosensors. OBJECTIVE: Establishment of mouse models, which allow the quantification of the glutathione redox potential (EGSH) in the cytoplasm and the mitochondrial matrix of isolated cardiac myocytes and in Langendorff-perfused hearts based on the use of the redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein 2, coupled to the glutaredoxin 1 (Grx1-roGFP2). METHODS AND RESULTS: We generated transgenic mice with cardiac myocyte-restricted expression of Grx1-roGFP2 targeted either to the mitochondrial matrix or to the cytoplasm. The response of the roGFP2 toward H2O2, diamide, and dithiothreitol was titrated and used to determine the EGSH in isolated cardiac myocytes and in Langendorff-perfused hearts. Distinct EGSH were observed in the cytoplasm and the mitochondrial matrix. Stimulation of the cardiac myocytes with isoprenaline, angiotensin II, or exposure to hypoxia/reoxygenation additionally underscored that these compartments responded independently. A compartment-specific response was also observed 3 to 14 days after myocardial infarction. CONCLUSIONS: We introduce redox biosensor mice as a new tool, which allows quantification of defined alterations of EGSH in the cytoplasm and the mitochondrial matrix in cardiac myocytes and can be exploited to answer questions in basic and translational cardiovascular research.

p63RhoGEF regulates auto- and paracrine signaling in cardiac fibroblasts.

Cardiac remodeling, a hallmark of heart disease, is associated with intense auto- and paracrine signaling leading to cardiac fibrosis. We hypothesized that the specific mediator of Gq/11-dependent RhoA activation p63RhoGEF, which is expressed in cardiac fibroblasts, plays a role in the underlying processes. We could show that p63RhoGEF is up-regulated in mouse hearts subjected to transverse aortic constriction (TAC). In an engineered heart muscle model (EHM), p63RhoGEF expression in cardiac fibroblasts increased resting and twitch tensions, and the dominant negative p63ΔN decreased both. In an engineered connective tissue model (ECT), p63RhoGEF increased tissue stiffness and its knockdown as well as p63ΔN reduced stiffness. In 2D cultures of neonatal rat cardiac fibroblasts, p63RhoGEF regulated the angiotensin II (Ang II)-dependent RhoA activation, the activation of the serum response factor, and the expression and secretion of the connective tissue growth factor (CTGF). All these processes were inhibited by the knockdown of p63RhoGEF or by p63ΔN likely based on their negative influence on the actin cytoskeleton. Moreover, we show that p63RhoGEF also regulates CTGF in engineered tissues and correlates with it in the TAC model. Finally, confocal studies revealed a closely related localization of p63RhoGEF and CTGF in the trans-Golgi network.

Cardiomyocyte-Specific Transgenic Expression of Prolyl-4-Hydroxylase Domain 3 Impairs the Myocardial Response to Ischemia.

AIMS: The prolyl-4-hydroxylase domain (PHD) enzymes are representing novel therapeutic targets for ischemic tissue protection. Whereas the consequences of a knock out of the PHDs have been analyzed in the context of cardioprotection, the implications of PHD overexpression is unknown so far. METHODS AND RESULTS: We generated cardiomyocyte-specific PHD3transgenic mice (cPhd3tg). Resting cPhd3tg mice did not show constitutive accumulation of HIF-1α or HIF-2α or changes in HIF target gene expression in the heart. Cardiac function was followed up for 14 months in these mice and found to be unchanged. After challenging the cPhd3tg mice with ligation of the left anterior descending artery, HIF-1α/-2α accumulation in the left ventricles was blunted. This was associated with a significantly increased infarct size of the cPhd3tg compared to wild type mice. CONCLUSION: Whereas overexpression of PHD3 in the resting state does not significantly influence cardiac function, it is crucial for the cardiac response to ischemia by affecting HIFα accumulation in the ischemic tissue.

IDH3γ functions as a redox switch regulating mitochondrial energy metabolism and contractility in the heart.

Redox signaling and cardiac function are tightly linked. However, it is largely unknown which protein targets are affected by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in cardiomyocytes that underly impaired inotropic effects during oxidative stress. Here, we combine a chemogenetic mouse model (HyPer-DAO mice) and a redox-proteomics approach to identify redox sensitive proteins. Using the HyPer-DAO mice, we demonstrate that increased endogenous production of H2O2 in cardiomyocytes leads to a reversible impairment of cardiac contractility in vivo. Notably, we identify the γ-subunit of the TCA cycle enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH)3 as a redox switch, linking its modification to altered mitochondrial metabolism. Using microsecond molecular dynamics simulations and experiments using cysteine-gene-edited cells reveal that IDH3γ Cys148 and 284 are critically involved in the H2O2-dependent regulation of IDH3 activity. Our findings provide an unexpected mechanism by which mitochondrial metabolism can be modulated through redox signaling processes.

Mechanistic insights into the translocation of full length HIV-1 Tat across lipid membranes.

The mechanism of how full length Tat (aa 1-86) crosses artificial lipid membranes was elucidated by means of fluorescence spectroscopy and fluorescence microscopy. It was shown that full length Tat (aa 1-86) neither forms pores in large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) nor in giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) composed of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC). In contrast, an N-terminally truncated Tat protein (aa 35-86) that lacks the structurally defined proline- and cysteine-rich region as well as the highly conserved tryptophan residue at position 11 generates pores in artificial POPC-membranes, through which a water-soluble dye up to a size of 10kDa can pass. By means of fluorescence microscopy, the transfer of fluorescently labeled full length Tat across POPC-bilayers was unambiguously visualized with a concomitant accumulation of the protein in the membrane interface. However, if the dye was attached to the protein, also pore formation was induced. The size of the pores was, however smaller than the protein size, i.e. the labeled protein with a mass of 11.6kDa passed the membrane, while a fluorescent dye with a mass of 10kDa was excluded from the vesicles' interior. The results demonstrate that pore formation is not the prime mechanism by which full length Tat crosses a membrane.

The HIFα-Stabilizing Drug Roxadustat Increases the Number of Renal Epo-Producing Sca-1+ Cells.

Inhibition of the prolyl-4-hydroxylase domain (PHD) enzymes, leading to the stabilization of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) α as well as to the stimulation of erythropoietin (Epo) synthesis, is the functional mechanism of the new anti-anemia drug roxadustat. Little is known about the effects of roxadustat on the Epo-producing cell pool. To gain further insights into the function of PHD inhibitors, we characterized the abundance of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-like cells after roxadustat treatment of mice. The number of Sca-1+ mesenchymal cells following roxadustat treatment increased exclusively in the kidneys. Isolated Sca-1+ cells demonstrated typical features of MSC-like cells, including adherence to tissue culture plates, trilineage differentiation potential, and expression of MSC markers. Kidney-derived Sca-1+ MSC-like cells were cultured for up to 21 days. Within the first few days in culture, cells stabilized HIF-1α and HIF-2α and temporarily increased Epo production upon incubation in hypoxia. In summary, we have identified a Sca-1+ MSC-like cell population that is involved in renal Epo production and might contribute to the strong anti-anemic effect of the PHD inhibitor roxadustat.

RhoGEF17-An Essential Regulator of Endothelial Cell Death and Growth.

The Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor RhoGEF17 was described to reside in adherens junctions (AJ) in endothelial cells (EC) and to play a critical role in the regulation of cell adhesion and barrier function. The purpose of this study was to analyze signal cascades and processes occurring subsequent to AJ disruption induced by RhoGEF17 knockdown. Primary human and immortalized rat EC were used to demonstrate that an adenoviral-mediated knockdown of RhoGEF17 resulted in cell rounding and an impairment in spheroid formation due to an enhanced proteasomal degradation of AJ components. In contrast, ß-catenin degradation was impaired, which resulted in an induction of the ß-catenin-target genes cyclin D1 and survivin. RhoGEF17 depletion additionally inhibited cell adhesion and sheet migration. The RhoGEF17 knockdown prevented the cells with impeded cell-cell and cell-matrix contacts from apoptosis, which was in line with a reduction in pro-caspase 3 expression and an increase in Akt phosphorylation. Nevertheless, the cells were not able to proliferate as a cell cycle block occurred. In summary, we demonstrate that a loss of RhoGEF17 disturbs cell-cell and cell-substrate interaction in EC. Moreover, it prevents the EC from cell death and blocks cell proliferation. Non-canonical ß-catenin signaling and Akt activation could be identified as a potential mechanism.

PHD2 Is a Regulator for Glycolytic Reprogramming in Macrophages.

The prolyl-4-hydroxylase domain (PHD) enzymes are regarded as the molecular oxygen sensors. There is an interplay between oxygen availability and cellular metabolism, which in turn has significant effects on the functionality of innate immune cells, such as macrophages. However, if and how PHD enzymes affect macrophage metabolism are enigmatic. We hypothesized that macrophage metabolism and function can be controlled via manipulation of PHD2. We characterized the metabolic phenotypes of PHD2-deficient RAW cells and primary PHD2 knockout bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). Both showed typical features of anaerobic glycolysis, which were paralleled by increased pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 (PDK1) protein levels and a decreased pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme activity. Metabolic alterations were associated with an impaired cellular functionality. Inhibition of PDK1 or knockout of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) reversed the metabolic phenotype and impaired the functionality of the PHD2-deficient RAW cells and BMDM. Taking these results together, we identified a critical role of PHD2 for a reversible glycolytic reprogramming in macrophages with a direct impact on their function. We suggest that PHD2 serves as an adjustable switch to control macrophage behavior.

RhoA Ambivalently Controls Prominent Myofibroblast Characteritics by Involving Distinct Signaling Routes.

INTRODUCTION: RhoA has been shown to be beneficial in cardiac disease models when overexpressed in cardiomyocytes, whereas its role in cardiac fibroblasts (CF) is still poorly understood. During cardiac remodeling CF undergo a transition towards a myofibroblast phenotype thereby showing an increased proliferation and migration rate. Both processes involve the remodeling of the cytoskeleton. Since RhoA is known to be a major regulator of the cytoskeleton, we analyzed its role in CF and its effect on myofibroblast characteristics in 2 D and 3D models. RESULTS: Downregulation of RhoA was shown to strongly affect the actin cytoskeleton. It decreased the myofibroblast marker α-sm-actin, but increased certain fibrosis-associated factors like TGF-ß and collagens. Also, the detailed analysis of CTGF expression demonstrated that the outcome of RhoA signaling strongly depends on the involved stimulus. Furthermore, we show that proliferation of myofibroblasts rely on RhoA and tubulin acetylation. In assays accessing three different types of migration, we demonstrate that RhoA/ROCK/Dia1 are important for 2D migration and the repression of RhoA and Dia1 signaling accelerates 3D migration. Finally, we show that a downregulation of RhoA in CF impacts the viscoelastic and contractile properties of engineered tissues. CONCLUSION: RhoA positively and negatively influences myofibroblast characteristics by differential signaling cascades and depending on environmental conditions. These include gene expression, migration and proliferation. Reduction of RhoA leads to an increased viscoelasticity and a decrease in contractile force in engineered cardiac tissue.