Future directions for the concept of salutogenesis: a position article.

Aaron Antonovsky advanced the concept of salutogenesis almost four decades ago (Antonovsky, Health, Stress and Coping. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, 1979; Unravelling the Mystery of Health. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA, 1987). Salutogenesis posits that life experiences shape the sense of coherence (SOC) that helps to mobilize resources to cope with stressors and manage tension successfully (determining one's movement on the health Ease/Dis-ease continuum). Antonovsky considered the three-dimensional SOC (i.e. comprehensibility, manageability, meaningfulness) as the key answer to his question about the origin of health. The field of health promotion has adopted the concept of salutogenesis as reflected in the international Handbook of Salutogenesis (Mittelmark et al., The Handbook of Salutogenesis. Springer, New York, 2016). However, health promotion mostly builds on the more vague, general salutogenic orientation that implies the need to foster resources and capacities to promote health and wellbeing. To strengthen the knowledge base of salutogenesis, the Global Working Group on Salutogenesis (GWG-Sal) of the International Union of Health Promotion and Education produced the Handbook of Salutogenesis. During the creation of the handbook and the regular meetings of the GWG-Sal, the working group identified four key conceptual issues to be advanced: (i) the overall salutogenic model of health; (ii) the SOC concept; (iii) the design of salutogenic interventions and change processes in complex systems; (iv) the application of salutogenesis beyond health sector. For each of these areas, we first highlight Antonovsky's original contribution and then present suggestions for future development. These ideas will help guide GWG-Sal's work to strengthen salutogenesis as a theory base for health promotion.

Impact of silage additives on aerobic stability and characteristics of high-moisture maize during exposure to air, and on fermented liquid feed.

AIMS: To (i) measure the aerobic stability- and describe the characteristics, during aeration, of high-moisture maize (HMM) treated with various additives, and (ii) describe the microbial characteristics of fermented liquid feed (FLF) added HMM. METHODS AND RESULTS: Four treatments were prepared with each of three HMM samples: (i) The HMM as is (CONTROL); and the control added (ii) acids (ACID); (iii) heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria (HETERO); or (iv) homofermentative lactic acid bacteria (HOMO). After ensiling, aerobic stability was measured (Aim 1) and FLF prepared (Aim 2). The ACID treatment improved the aerobic stability of samples 1 and 3 from 9 to 14 h in the CONTROL to 67-115 h. All additives improved aerobic stability of sample 3 from 32 h in the CONTROL to 104-168 h. No proliferation of Enterobacteriacaea was detected during incubation of FLF. CONCLUSION: The microbial profile during aeration- and impact of additives on the aerobic stability of HMM depended on the characteristics of the samples. No blooming of Enterobacteriaceae was observed in FLF containing c. 20 g HMM 100 g(-1) . SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The impact of silage additives on aerobic stability of HMM should be tested in samples with varying characteristics. Inclusion of HMM could be a way of improving biosafety of FLF.

The life and health challenges of young Malaysian couples: results from a stakeholder consensus and engagement study to support non-communicable disease prevention.

BACKGROUND: Malaysia faces burgeoning obesity and diabetes epidemics with a 250% and 88% increase respectively between 1996 and 2006. Identifying the health challenges of young adults in Malaysia, who constitute 27.5 % of the population, is critical for NCD prevention. The aim of the study was two-fold: (1) to achieve consensus amongst stakeholders on the most important challenge impacting the health of young adults, and (2) to engage with stakeholders to formulate a NCD prevention framework. METHODS: The Delphi Technique was utilised to achieve group consensus around the most important life and health challenges that young adults face in Malaysia. Subsequently, the results of the consensus component were shared with the stakeholders in an engagement workshop to obtain input on a NCD prevention framework. RESULTS: We found that life stress was a significant concern. It would seem that the apathy towards pursuing or maintaining a healthy lifestyle among young adults may be significantly influenced by the broader distal determinant of life stress. The high cost of living is suggested to be the main push factor for young working adults towards attaining better financial security to improve their livelihood. In turn, this leads to a more stressful lifestyle with less time to focus on healthier lifestyle choices. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight a pivotal barrier to healthier lifestyles. By assisting young adults to cope with daily living coupled with realistic opportunities to make healthier dietary choices, be more active, and less sedentary could assist in the development of NCD health promotion strategies.

Primary tumor location and bevacizumab effectiveness in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: There is an unmet need for predictive markers for the antiangiogenic agent bevacizumab in metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC). We aimed to assess whether the location of the primary tumor is associated with bevacizumab effectiveness when combined with capecitabine and oxaliplatin (CAPEOX) in the first-line treatment of patients with mCRC. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A cohort of 667 consecutive patients with mCRC from the general community treated from 2006 to 2011 with CAPEOX and bevacizumab as standard first-line therapy was compared with a cohort of 213 patients treated with CAPEOX from 2003 to 2006, before bevacizumab was approved. Main outcome measures were progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS). Differences in outcome were tested using Kaplan-Meier curves and log-rank tests, and multivariate analyses were carried out using Cox Proportional Hazards models. RESULTS: Patients treated with CAPEOX and bevacizumab with primary tumors originating in the sigmoid colon and rectum had a significantly better outcome than patients with primary tumors originating from the cecum to the descending colon, both for PFS (median PFS 9.3 versus 7.2 months; hazard ratio (HR) 0.68, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.56-0.82) and for OS (median OS 23.5 versus 13.0 months; HR 0.47, 95% CI 0.38-0.57). This difference was confirmed in multivariate analyses after adjustment for other potentially prognostic factors. For patients treated with CAPEOX, there was no association between primary tumor location and outcome, neither in unadjusted nor adjusted analyses. CONCLUSIONS: The addition of bevacizumab to CAPEOX in first-line treatment of patients with mCRC may primarily benefit patients with primary tumors originating in the rectum and sigmoid colon. This hypothesis needs to be validated in data from completed randomized trials. CLINICALTRIALSGOV IDENTIFICATION NUMBER: NCT00212615.

Social support and self-management behaviour among patients with Type 2 diabetes.

AIMS: To investigate the relationship between structural and functional social support and patient activation, diabetes-related emotional distress, perceived diabetes care, self-management behaviour and HbA(1c) levels among patients with Type 2 diabetes. METHODS: Self-administered questionnaires were collected from 2572 patients with Type 2 diabetes. After adjusting for gender, age and education, Tobit and logistic regression models were used to examine associations between social network and patient activation, psychosocial problems, self-management behaviours and HbA(1c) levels. RESULTS: Frequent contact with friends was associated with more positive scores for activation, fewer psychosocial problems, more positive assessment of care and health-promoting self-management behaviours such as frequent exercising and frequent foot examinations. Frequent contact with family was associated with more positive assessments of care. Living with a partner was associated with lower prevalence of smoking, a higher frequency of foot examinations and higher HbA(1c) levels. A poor functional social network, measured as perceived lack of help in the event of severe illness, was associated with low patient activation, greater emotional distress, negative assessment of care, less health-promoting eating habits and less frequent foot examinations. CONCLUSIONS: Good social support is significantly associated with health-promoting behaviours and well-being among patients with Type 2 diabetes. However, HbA(1c) levels are higher for cohabitant persons, indicating barriers for social support. Intervention research is needed to investigate the causal relationship between social networks and health-promoting behaviours. This knowledge should be used in clinical practice when targeting and designing education, support and care for patients with Type 2 diabetes.

Microbial production of volatile sulphur compounds in the large intestine of pigs fed two different diets.

AIMS: To investigate the production of volatile sulphur compounds (VSC) in the segments of the large intestine of pigs and to assess the impact of diet on this production. METHODS AND RESULTS: Pigs were fed two diets based on either wheat and barley (STD) or wheat and dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS). Net production of VSC and potential sulphate reduction rate (SRR) (sulphate saturated) along the large intestine were determined by means of in vitro incubations. The net production rate of hydrogen sulphide and potential SRR increased from caecum towards distal colon and were significantly higher in the STD group. Conversely, the net methanethiol production rate was significantly higher in the DDGS group, while no difference was observed for dimethyl sulphide. The number of sulphate-reducing bacteria and total bacteria were determined by quantitative PCR and showed a significant increase along the large intestine, whereas no diet-related differences were observed. CONCLUSION: VSC net production varies widely throughout the large intestine of pigs and the microbial processes involved in this production can be affected by diet. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This first report on intestinal production of all VSC shows both spatial and dietary effects, which are relevant to both bowel disease- and odour mitigation research.

Experimental determination of the ²4Mg I (3s3p)³P2 lifetime.

We present the first experimental determination of the electric-dipole forbidden (3s3p)³P2→(3s²)¹S0 (M2) transition rate in ²4Mg and compare to state-of-the-art theoretical predictions. Our measurement exploits a magnetic trap isolating the sample from perturbations and a magneto-optical trap as an amplifier converting each ³P2→¹S0 decay event into millions of photons readily detected. The transition rate is determined to be (4.87 ± 0.3)×10⁻4 s⁻¹ corresponding to a ³P2 lifetime of 2050(-110)(+140) sec. This value is in agreement with recent theoretical predictions, and to our knowledge the longest lifetime ever determined in a laboratory environment.

Dietary divercin modifies gastrointestinal microbiota and improves growth performance in broiler chickens.

1. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of dietary administration of a divercin AS7 liquid preparation on broiler chicken performance, nutrient digestibility, counts of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and coliform bacteria, as well as on the microbial activity in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) as expressed by digesta pH and concentrations of short-chain fatty acids and lactic acid. 2. A total of 450 1-d-old male Ross 308 chickens were randomly distributed to three dietary treatments, with 15 pens per treatment and 10 birds per pen. The dietary treatments consisted of a positive control (PC) supplemented with 60 mg/kg salinomycin, a negative control (NC) without any additives, and the divercin (DIV) supplemented diet containing 0 x 2 mL/kg of the liquid divercin AS7 preparation. 3. The dietary divercin AS7 supplementation significantly increased body weight gain at 35 d compared to the NC group. Moreover, the pH of crop contents was higher and that of caecal contents lower in birds fed on the divercin supplemented diets. 4. Significantly lower counts of LAB were observed in the crops and caeca of the birds treated with divercin. Further, the divercin supplementation decreased lactic and succinic acid concentrations in the crop and ileum. 5. The present study demonstrates that the use of divercin supplemented diets can influence composition and activity of the microbiota in the broiler chicken GIT even in the lower parts that should otherwise not be targeted due to the peptide structure of the bacteriocin.

Effect of ß -glucanase and xylanase supplementation of barley- and rye-based diets on caecal microbiota of broiler chickens.

1. The aim was to investigate the effect of grain type (barley or rye) and exogenous enzymes (ß-glucanase or xylanase) on the composition of chicken caecal microbiota as examined by classical culturing and molecular techniques (fluorescent in-situ hybridisation (FISH) and terminal-restriction fragment-length polymorphism (T-RFLP)). 2. Plate counting revealed higher total numbers of anaerobic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria and yeasts in caecal contents of birds fed with rye-based diets than in birds fed with barley-based diets. 3. As assessed by FISH analysis, the most abundant bacterial groups in the broiler caeca were Clostridium coccoides-Eubacterium rectale followed by Bacteroides sp., Lactobacillus sp./Enterococcus sp., Bifidobacterium sp. and Enterobacteriaceae. For both cereal types, the enzyme supplementation significantly decreased the relative amount of Enterobacteriaceae. 4. The T-RFLP profiles indicated that the caecal microbiota of birds receiving rye-based diets was more diverse than that of birds fed on barley-based diets. 5. Irrespective of the method applied, the results indicate that the cereal type as well as the exogenous enzyme supplementation influence the microbiota in broiler chicken caeca, and may have the effect of reducing potentially pathogenic Enterobacteriaceae populations.

Fermented feed for laying hens: effects on egg production, egg quality, plumage condition and composition and activity of the intestinal microflora.

1. An experiment with a total of 480 hens (Babcock) was carried out from 16 to 38 weeks of age to evaluate the suitability of wet fermented feed (feed water ratio, 1:1.2-1:1.4) for layers, taking aspects of nutrition and gastrointestinal health into consideration. The production performance, egg shell quality, plumage condition, litter dry matter (DM) content, as well as the composition and activity of the intestinal microbial flora were analysed. 2. Fermented feed was characterised by a high concentration of lactic acid (160-250 mmol/kg feed) and a moderate level of acetic acid (20-30 mmol/kg feed), high numbers of lactic acid bacteria (log 9-10 CFU/g feed) and a pH of approximately 4.5. Feed fermentation reduced the concentration of dietary sugar from 32.1 to 7.3 g/kg DM and the phytate bound phosphorus from 2.7 to 1.9 g/kg DM. 3. Fermented feed seemed to loose attractiveness for the birds quite rapidly, resulting in a more aggressive behaviour and a poorer plumage condition than in birds given dry feed. The use of fermented feed reduced the litter DM content. 4. During the experimental period, the body weight gain of hens receiving fermented feed was 80 g higher than of hens fed the dry mash. Presumably because of an extended adaptation time to the feed, the onset of lay occurred later when hens were fed on fermented feed, resulting in non-significantly reduced total egg production (75 vs. 82%). 5. There was no significant difference between groups with respect to the total egg mass production (g/d/hen, 42 and 45 for fermented feed and dry mash, respectively). Throughout the experimental period, the feed DM intake of hens fed with fermented feed was lower than that of hens receiving the dry mash (110 vs. 125 g). From week 26 to 37, fermented feed improved the feed conversion as compared with the dry mash (g feed DM/g egg mass, 2.28 vs. 2.53). 6. The use of fermented feed increased egg weight in the period from 34 to 37 weeks (61.4 vs. 60.0) and increased shell weight (g/100 g egg weight, 10.2 vs. 9.9) and shell stiffness (N/mm, 161 vs. 150) of eggs collected at 37 weeks. 7. The feeding of fermented feed increased intestinal health by acidification of the upper digestive tract, forming a natural barrier towards infection with acid sensitive pathogens, e.g. E. coli, Salmonella and Campylobacter. 8. It was concluded that fermented wet feed offers potential benefits for health and nutrition, but may become suitable for layers only after the practical problems related to this feeding form have been overcome. However, an early adaptation of the birds during the rearing period seems to be necessary.

Amplification and ASE suppression in a polarization-maintaining ytterbium-doped all-solid photonic bandgap fibre.

We demonstrate suppression of amplified spontaneous emission at the conventional ytterbium gain wavelengths around 1030 nm in a cladding-pumped polarization-maintaining ytterbium-doped all-solid photonic crystal fibre. The fibre works through combined index and bandgap guiding. Furthermore, we show that the peak of the amplified spontaneous emission can be shifted towards longer wavelengths by rescaling the fibre dimensions. Thereby one can obtain lasing or amplification at longer wavelengths (1100 nm - 1200 nm) as the amount of amplification in the fibre is shown to scale with the power of the amplified spontaneous emission.

School children as health change agents in Magu, Tanzania: a feasibility study.

The feasibility of an action-oriented and participatory educational approach, where school children function as health change agents, in a rural community of (Magu district) Tanzania was explored. Observations, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with pupils, teachers and parents were undertaken. Findings showed that study participants favoured an approach where school children played an active role as health change agents in a combined school and community health education project. This conclusion contradicts traditional views in many African cultures where power, status and wisdom are usually closely associated with old age. However, a number of barriers were found, including the curriculum, time constraints, class size, teaching materials and teachers' skills and working conditions. The idea that pupils act as health change agents in the community as part of an action-oriented and participatory health education approach in schools was supported. A list of factors to consider when planning an action-oriented health education project is provided and discussed.

Growth inhibition of bacterial isolates recovered from two types of Portuguese dry smoked sausages (chouriço).

Potassium sorbate (PS), sodium benzoate (SB) and methyl p-hydroxybenzoate (MHB) were investigated as surface treatments for their ability to inhibit the growth of 18 isolates of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria from two types of Portuguese dry smoked sausages (Chouriço). MHB significantly inhibited the growth rate of 12 of the isolates (p<0.05) whereas no effect was observed for four isolates of lactic acid bacteria, identified as Enterococcusfaecium, Pediococcusacidilactici and Lactobacilluscurvatus, and two isolates identified as Clostridiumaminovalericum and Staphylococcusepidermidis. PS and SB had less influence on the bacterial growth rates. It was concluded that MHB can be applied as surface treatment to improve the stability and safety of the product along shelf life period in modified atmosphere package.

Mycoflora of two types of Portuguese dry-smoked sausages and inhibitory effect of sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, and methyl p-hydroxybenzoate on mold growth rate.

The mycoflora of chouriqo types Alentejano and Ribatejano, two varieties of Portuguese dry-smoked sausages, have been investigated after a producer-defined shelf life period (120 days at 20 +/- 5 degrees C) in modified atmosphere packaging (55% N2 and 45% CO2). On the basis of morphological and physiological characteristics, the isolates were identified as Penicillium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Rhizopus, Monilia, Absidia, and Cephalosporium. The species identified were as follows: Penicillium terrestres (43.4%), Penicillium sp. (13.3%), Fusarium sp. (10%), Aspergillus glaucus (10%), Aspergillus versicolor (6.8%), Monilia fruticola (3.3%), Absidia sp. (3.3%), Cephalosporium sp. (3.3%), Rhizopus stolonifer (3.3%), and Fusarium tricinctum (3.3%). Additionally, the effects of three preservatives (potassium sorbate [PS], sodium benzoate [SB], and methyl p-hydroxybenzoate [MHB]) were studied on the growth rate of mold representative isolates. MHB showed a greater inhibitory effect than SB and PS in all fungi isolates, except in A. glaucus [Tm30(A)], in which the inhibitory effect of MHB was similar to PS. At 0.05% (wt/vol), all fungi were inhibited with MHB, except for R. stolonifer [Tm25(A)], which started to decrease the growth rate only at a concentration higher than 0.1%. PS was more effective at inhibiting mold growth than SB, except in Absidia sp. [Tm16(R)], in which both showed a similar inhibitory effect. MHB showed great promise as an application to the surface at 0.1% (wt/vol) to improve the stability and safety of the product through the inhibition of potential spoilage and toxigenic molds.

Lectin histochemical characterisation of the porcine small intestine around weaning.

The present study was undertaken to characterise the carbohydrate profile of the porcine small intestine using lectin histochemistry during the period from 3 days prior to weaning to 9 days post-weaning. A total of 56 piglets weaned at 4 weeks of age were included in the experiment. The most prominent changes in the glycosylation pattern were observed in the goblet cells. The highest lectin reactivity of the goblet cells in the crypts was observed 7 days post-weaning which suggests that the protective effect of the mucus layer against pathogenic bacteria is increasing during the postweaning period. The staining pattern of the apical membrane remained unchanged during the experimental period. This indicates that the glycosylation process in the goblet cells is rapidly inducible whereas changes in the glycosylation pattern of the apical membrane requires more time. The glycosylation pattern of both goblet cells and apical membrane differed between the positions of the small intestine. As glycoconjugates can act as attachment sites for microorganisms, these differences in the distribution of sugar residues may be one explanation for the site-specificity of certain pathogens.

Microbial community composition of the ileum and cecum of broiler chickens as revealed by molecular and culture-based techniques.

The microbial communities of the ileum and cecum of broiler chickens from a conventional and an organic farm were investigated using conventional culture techniques as well as cloning and sequencing of 16S rRNA genes. Eighty-five percent of the 557 cloned sequences were <97% related to known cultured species. The chicken ileum was dominated by lactobacilli, whereas the cecum harbored a more diverse microbial community. The cecum was dominated by a large group of bacteria with hitherto no close cultured relatives but most closely related to Faecalibacterium prausnitzii. Approximately 49 and 20% of the cecal clones belonged to this cluster in conventional and organic broiler chickens, respectively. We were, however, able to recover a number of these phylotypes by cultivation, and the isolates were shown to be butyric acid producers. The investigation was a descriptive rather than a comparative study of 2 different rearing systems; however, several differences were observed. For instance, Clostridium perfringens was found in significantly higher numbers in the birds from the organic farm compared with the conventional broilers, probably due to the addition of salinomycin to the conventional feed. In the ileum, the abundance of the different Lactobacillus species differed between the 2 broiler types. The culture-based and culture-independent techniques complemented each other well. Strengths and limitations of the different methods are discussed.

Evaluation of in situ valine production by Bacillus subtilis in young pigs.

Mutants of Bacillus subtilis can be developed to overproduce Val in vitro. It was hypothesized that addition of Bacillus subtilis mutants to pig diets can be a strategy to supply the animal with Val. The objective was to investigate the effect of Bacillus subtilis mutants on growth performance and blood amino acid (AA) concentrations when fed to piglets. Experiment 1 included 18 pigs (15.0±1.1 kg) fed one of three diets containing either 0.63 or 0.69 standardized ileal digestible (SID) Val : Lys, or 0.63 SID Val : Lys supplemented with a Bacillus subtilis mutant (mutant 1). Blood samples were obtained 0.5 h before feeding and at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 h after feeding and analyzed for AAs. In Experiment 2, 80 piglets (9.1±1.1 kg) were fed one of four diets containing 0.63 or 0.67 SID Val : Lys, or 0.63 SID Val : Lys supplemented with another Bacillus subtilis mutant (mutant 2) or its parent wild type. Average daily feed intake, daily weight gain and feed conversion ratio were measured on days 7, 14 and 21. On day 17, blood samples were taken and analyzed for AAs. On days 24 to 26, six pigs from each dietary treatment were fitted with a permanent jugular vein catheter, and blood samples were taken for AA analysis 0.5 h before feeding and at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 h after feeding. In experiment 1, Bacillus subtilis mutant 1 tended (P<0.10) to increase the plasma levels of Val at 2 and 3 h post-feeding, but this was not confirmed in Experiment 2. In Experiment 2, Bacillus subtilis mutant 2 and the wild type did not result in a growth performance different from the negative and positive controls. In conclusion, results obtained with the mutant strains of Bacillus subtilis were not better than results obtained with the wild-type strain, and for both strains, the results were not different than the negative control.

The potential of schoolchildren as health change agents in rural western Kenya.

A prospective, quasi-experimental study was carried out in Bondo district in western Kenya to determine the potential of schoolchildren as health change agents in a rural community. A group of 40 schoolchildren were given health education using action-oriented and participatory approaches and their knowledge and practices as well as the influence on recipient groups consisting of peers at school and parents/guardians at home, were studied. The study, which used questionnaire surveys, involved a pre-test of knowledge about malaria, diarrhea and hygiene among the recipient groups. After the baseline surveys they underwent health communication training conducted by the 40 schoolchildren. An identical post-test questionnaire was administered to all participants at 4 and 14 months. Health-related practices were studied regularly through observation in schools and homes over 14 months. Significant improvement in knowledge was detected in all recipient groups. Behavioral changes were more evident among the children than among the adults. The impact of the project was reflected in concrete changes in the school environment as well as the home environments. The implications of the findings for health education projects and public health programs are outlined.

Weight and season affects androstenone and skatole occurrence in entire male pigs in organic pig production.

To investigate the extent to which the level of androstenone and skatole decreases with a decrease in live weight and/or age at slaughter of entire male pigs produced under organic standards, 1174 entire male pigs were raised in parallel in five organic herds, distributed across four batches in summer and winter. The median androstenone level was high for organic entire male pigs (1.9 µg/g), but varied greatly both within and between herds. Median skatole level was 0.05 µg/g, also with a wide range both within and between herds. Decreasing live weight over the range of 110 ± 15.6 kg s.d. was found to decrease androstenone as well as skatole concentration, however, with different patterns of association. Age did not have significant direct effect on either androstenone or skatole levels. Androstenone levels were higher during winter than summer (P<0.0001), but no difference in skatole was found between seasons. The study concludes that decreasing live weight at slaughter could be an applicable management tool to reduce risk of boar taint and the level of tainted carcasses for a future production of entire male pigs within the organic pig production system, although further studies are needed as great variation in boar taint was found also for low weight animals.

Effect of faecal soiling on skatole and androstenone occurrence in organic entire male pigs.

Production of entire male pigs could be a future strategy for organic pig production. However, production of entire males leads to increased risk of carcasses with elevated boar taint levels. It is hypothesized that skatole levels in pig meat are affected by faecal soiling and that organic housing facilities can increase the risk of pigs being heavily soiled. Therefore, the overall aim of this study was to investigate if increased pig and pen soiling increases skatole concentration in entire male pigs. In five herds, 1174 organic entire male pigs were reared in four batches across two seasons, summer and winter. Measurements of pig and pen soiling, as well as fat skatole and androstenone concentration and human nose sensory tests of fat odour, were performed. Skatole and androstenone concentrations varied greatly within and between herds with a 10% and 90% percentile for the overall population of 0.02 and 2.25 µg/g for skatole and 0.53 and 4.84 µg/g for androstenone. Human nose positive tests averaged 18.3% with great variation between herds and seasons. Pen soiling had significant effects on pig soiling. Moreover, outdoor pen soiling significantly affected skatole concentration in interactions with herd and season (P<0.001 and P=0.003) and affected human nose positive risk in interaction with herd (P=0.005). Soiling on indoor pen areas did not affect skatole levels and no effect on androstenone was found for any pen area. Soiling of pigs affected both skatole and androstenone levels, with the size of the head and abdomen body areas covered in manure showing significant positive effects on skatole concentration. No effect of density of the manure layer was found on either boar taint measure. Herd significantly affected both skatole and androstenone in fat as well as the human nose positive risk. The human nose test revealed no effect from pig soiling. A large variation in the different boar taint measures was found for both high and low scores of pen and pig soiling, and only a small difference in skatole and androstenone concentrations between the high and low soiling categories was found. Therefore, while increasing the hygiene management could be a strategy for reducing boar taint in production of organic entire male pigs, it should be emphasized that other factors would also need to be considered.