Unraveling the Contribution of MulSOS2 in Conferring Salinity Tolerance in Mulberry (Morus atropurpurea Roxb).

Salinity is one of the most serious threats to sustainable agriculture. The Salt Overly Sensitive (SOS) signaling pathway plays an important role in salinity tolerance in plants, and the SOS2 gene plays a critical role in this pathway. Mulberry not only has important economic value but also is an important ecological tree species; however, the roles of the SOS2 gene associated with salt stress have not been reported in mulberry. To gain insight into the response of mulberry to salt stress, SOS2 (designated MulSOS2) was cloned from mulberry (Morus atropurpurea Roxb), and sequence analysis of the amino acids of MulSOS2 showed that it shares some conserved domains with its homologs from other plant species. Our data showed that the MulSOS2 gene was expressed at different levels in different tissues of mulberry, and its expression was induced substantially not only by NaCl but also by ABA. In addition, MulSOS2 was exogenously expressed in Arabidopsis, and the results showed that under salt stress, transgenic MulSOS2 plants accumulated more proline and less malondialdehyde than the wild-type plants and exhibited increased tolerance to salt stress. Moreover, the MulSOS2 gene was transiently overexpressed in mulberry leaves and stably overexpressed in the hairy roots, and similar results were obtained for resistance to salt stress in transgenic mulberry plants. Taken together, the results of this study are helpful to further explore the function of the MulSOS2 gene, which provides a valuable gene for the genetic breeding of salt tolerance in mulberry.

Integrated Phloem Sap mRNA and Protein Expression Analysis Reveals Phytoplasma-infection Responses in Mulberry.

To gain insight into the response of mulberry to phytoplasma-infection, the expression profiles of mRNAs and proteins in mulberry phloem sap were examined. A total of 955 unigenes and 136 proteins were found to be differentially expressed between the healthy and infected phloem sap. These differentially expressed mRNAs and proteins are involved in signaling, hormone metabolism, stress responses, etc. Interestingly, we found that both the mRNA and protein levels of the major latex protein-like 329 (MuMLPL329) gene were increased in the infected phloem saps. Expression of the MuMLPL329 gene was induced by pathogen inoculation and was responsive to jasmonic acid. Ectopic expression of MuMLPL329 in Arabidopsis enhances transgenic plant resistance to Botrytis cinerea, Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000 (Pst. DC3000) and phytoplasma. Further analysis revealed that MuMLPL329 can enhance the expression of some defense genes and might be involved in altering flavonoid content resulting in increased resistance of plants to pathogen infection. Finally, the roles of the differentially expressed mRNAs and proteins and the potential molecular mechanisms of their changes were discussed. It was likely that the phytoplasma-responsive mRNAs and proteins in the phloem saps were involved in multiple pathways of mulberry responses to phytoplasma-infection, and their changes may be partially responsible for some symptoms in the phytoplasma infected plants.

Characterization of NPR1 and NPR4 genes from mulberry (Morus multicaulis) and their roles in development and stress resistance.

The quality and quantity of mulberry leaves are often affected by various environmental factors. The plant NPR1 and its homologous genes are important for plant systemic acquired resistance. Here, the full-length cDNAs encoding the NPR1 and NPR4 genes (designated MuNPR1 and MuNPR4, respectively) were isolated from Morus multicaulis. Sequence analysis of the amino acids and protein modeling of the MuNPR1 and MuNPR4 proteins showed that MuNPR1 shares some conserved characteristics with its homolog MuNPR4. MuNPR1 was shown to have different expression patterns than MuNPR4 in mulberry plants. Interestingly, MuNPR1 or MuNPR4 transgenic Arabidopsis produced an early flowering phenotype, and the expression of the pathogenesis-related 1a gene was promoted in MuNPR1 transgenic Arabidopsis. The MuNPR1 transgenic plants showed more resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pst. DC3000) than did the wild-type Arabidopsis. Moreover, the ectopic expression of MuNPR1 might lead to enhanced scavenging ability and suppress collase accumulation. In contrast, the MuNPR4 transgenic Arabidopsis were hypersensitive to Pst. DC3000 infection. In addition, transgenic Arabidopsis with the ectopic expression of either MuNPR1 or MuNPR4 showed sensitivity to salt and drought stresses. Our data suggest that both the MuNPR1 and MuNPR4 genes play a role in the coordination between signaling pathways, and the information provided here enables the in-depth functional analysis of the MuNPR1 and MuNPR4 genes and may promote mulberry resistance breeding in the future.

Metabolomic analysis reveals the potential metabolites and pathogenesis involved in mulberry yellow dwarf disease.

To analyse the molecular mechanisms of phytoplasma pathogenicity, the comprehensive metabolomic changes of mulberry leaf and phloem sap in response to phytoplasma infection were examined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The metabolic profiles obtained revealed that the metabolite compositions of leaf and phloem sap were different, and phytoplasma infection has a greater impact on the metabolome of phloem sap than of leaf. Phytoplasma infection brought about the content changes in various metabolites, such as carbohydrates, amino acids, organic acids, etc. Meanwhile, the results of biochemical analysis showed that the degradation of starch was repressed, and the starch content was increased in the infected leaves. In addition, we found that phytoplasma infection changed the levels of abscisic acid and cytokinin and break phytohormone balance. Interestingly, our data showed that the contents of H2O2 and superoxide were increased in the infected leaves, but not in the phloem saps. Based on the results, the expression levels of the genes involved in the metabolism of some changed metabolites were examined, and the potential molecular mechanisms of these changes were discussed. It can be concluded that both the leaf and phloem saps have a complicated metabolic response to phytoplasma infection, but their response mechanisms were different.

A novel late embryogenesis abundant like protein associated with chilling stress in Nicotiana tabacum cv. bright yellow-2 cell suspension culture.

Low temperature is one of the major abiotic stresses limiting the productivity and geographical distribution of many important crops. To identify proteins associated with chilling stress in Nicotiana tabacum cv. bright yellow-2 (BY-2) cell suspension culture, we utilized a proteomic approach with two-dimensional electrophoresis to compare proteins from samples of treated with or without chilling treatment at 4 °C. One protein specifically more abundant in chilling treated sample was identified and designated as NtLEA7-3. Rapid amplification of cDNA ends gave rise to a full-length NtLEA7-3 cDNA with a complete open reading frame of 1267 bp, encoding a 322 amino acid polypeptide. Homology search and sequence multi-alignment demonstrated that the deduced NtLEA7-3 protein sequence shared a high identity with LEA-like proteins from other plants. Subcellular localization analysis indicated that the NtLEA7-3 was localized exclusively in the nucleus. When the gene was overexpressed in bright yellow-2 cells, the transgenic bright yellow-2 cells show more resistant to chilling stress than the wild-type cells. In addition, transgenic Arabidopsis plants overexpressing the NtLEA7-3 are much more resistant to cold, drought, and salt stresses. Interestingly, the expression of NtLEA7-3 in tobacco was not tissue-specific and induced by chilling, drought and salt stresses. All of these, taken together, suggest that NtLEA7-3 is worthwhile to elucidate the contribution of the proteins to the tolerance mechanism to chilling stress, and can be considered as a potential target for crop genetic improvement in the future.

Shotgun Analysis of the Secretome of Fusarium graminearum.

Fusarium head blight, caused predominately by Fusarium graminearum, is one of the most destructive diseases of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) worldwide. To characterize the profile of proteins secreted by F. graminearum, the extracellular proteins were collectively obtained from F. graminearum culture supernatants and evaluated using one-dimensional SDS-PAGE and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. A total of 87 proteins have been identified, of which 63 were predicted as secretory proteins including those with known functions. Meanwhile, 20 proteins that are not homologous to genomic sequences with known functions have also been detected. Some of the identified proteins are possible virulence factors and may play extracellular roles during F. graminearum infection. This study provides a valuable dataset of F. graminearum extracellular proteins, and a better understanding of the virulence mechanisms of the pathogen.

A Novel LncRNA, MuLnc1, Associated With Environmental Stress in Mulberry (Morus multicaulis).

Environmental stresses are major constraints that limit the leaf productivity and quality of mulberry. LncRNAs have emerged as important regulators in response to biotic and abiotic stresses in plants. However, the functions and mechanisms of most lncRNAs remain largely unknown. A novel lncRNA designated as MuLnc1 was found to be cleaved by mul-miR3954 and produce secondary siRNAs in a 21 nt phase in mulberry. It was demonstrated that one of the siRNAs produced, si161579, can silence the expression of the calmodulin-like protein gene CML27 of mulberry (MuCML27). When MuCML27 was heterologously expressed in Arabidopsis, the transgenic plants exhibited enhanced resistance to Botrytis cinerea and Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000. In addition, the transgenic MuCML27-overexpressing Arabidopsis plants are more tolerant to salt and drought stresses. Furthermore, the network of mul-miR3954-MuLnc1-siRNAs-mRNAs was modeled to elucidate the interaction between lncRNAs and sRNAs with mRNAs. All of these, taken together, suggest that MuLnc1 was associated with environmental stress in mulberry and may be considered as a potential genetic improvement target gene of mulberry. The information provided may shed light on the complicated gene expression regulatory mechanisms in mulberry stress responses.

MiRNA-seq-based profiles of miRNAs in mulberry phloem sap provide insight into the pathogenic mechanisms of mulberry yellow dwarf disease.

A wide range of miRNAs have been identified as phloem-mobile molecules that play important roles in coordinating plant development and physiology. Phytoplasmas are associated with hundreds of plant diseases, and the pathogenesis involved in the interactions between phytoplasmas and plants is still poorly understood. To analyse the molecular mechanisms of phytoplasma pathogenicity, the miRNAs profiles in mulberry phloem saps were examined in response to phytoplasma infection. A total of 86 conserved miRNAs and 19 novel miRNAs were identified, and 30 conserved miRNAs and 13 novel miRNAs were differentially expressed upon infection with phytoplasmas. The target genes of the differentially expressed miRNAs are involved in diverse signalling pathways showing the complex interactions between mulberry and phytoplasma. Interestingly, we found that mul-miR482a-5p was up-regulated in the infected phloem saps, and grafting experiments showed that it can be transported from scions to rootstock. Based on the results, the complexity and roles of the miRNAs in phloem sap and the potential molecular mechanisms of their changes were discussed. It is likely that the phytoplasma-responsive miRNAs in the phloem sap modulate multiple pathways and work cooperatively in response to phytoplasma infection, and their expression changes may be responsible for some symptoms in the infected plants.

[Identification of white muscardin silkworms by infrared spectroscopy].

The infrared spectra of the ethanol extracts of well-living silkworms and white muscardin silkworms of different seasons and breeds were analyzed by means of the sequential analysis in which two indexes, i. e. common peak ratio and variant peak ratio, were applied. The results showed that the ethanol extracts of white muscardin silkworm have a stable and distinct infrared spectrum. The spectral differences of the ethanol extracts between white muscardin silkworms and well-living silkworms were so obvious that the common peak ratio of them was no more than 63. 0%, and the variant peak ratio amounted to 41. 2%. The spectra of different breeds and seasons conformed with each other with a few small differences. The minimum common peak ratio of the spectra of different breeds was 76. 0%, and the maximal ratio was 92. 0%. The common peak ratio of the spectra of different seasons was 73. 1%. Infrared spectrometry was proved to be good for the identification of white muscardin silkworms and the differentiation of white muscardin silkworms of different breeds and seasons.

The Latex Protein MLX56 from Mulberry (Morus multicaulis) Protects Plants against Insect Pests and Pathogens.

Biotic stresses are major constraints limiting the leaf quality and productivity of mulberry. MLX56 is a unique chitin-binding protein isolated from Shin-Ichinose (Morus alba) latex that displays toxicity against lepidopteran caterpillars. In this study, the full-length cDNA encoding MLX56 was isolated from Husang 32 (M. multicaulis) and designated HMLX56. Amino acid sequence analysis and protein modeling of three MLX56 proteins showed that they were highly conserved among Morus species. Tissue expression pattern analysis showed that the HMLX56 gene was strongly expressed in mulberry bark and leaves but only slightly expressed in fruits. In addition, analysis of GUS expression indicated that the promoter of HMLX56 showed higher transcriptional activity along the vascular strands, and its activity can be regulated by various environmental factors. Like the MLX56 protein from M. alba, the HMLX56 protein showed toxicity to Plutella xylostella. Moreover, when the HMLX56 gene was ectopically expressed in Arabidopsis, the transgenic plants showed enhanced resistance to aphids, the fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea and the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000. Our data suggest that the HMLX56 protein has a lectin-like molecular structure consisting of two hevein-like chitin-binding domains which provide not only chitin-binding activities but also other mechanisms of defense. The information provided here improves our understanding of the potential functions and defense mechanisms of MLX56 proteins, enabling in-depth functional analysis of latex exudates and perhaps facilitating mulberry genetic improvement in the future.

Analysis of phytoplasma-responsive sRNAs provide insight into the pathogenic mechanisms of mulberry yellow dwarf disease.

The yellow dwarf disease associated with phytoplasmas is one of the most devastating diseases of mulberry and the pathogenesis involved in the disease is poorly understood. To analyze the molecular mechanisms mediating gene expression in mulberry-phytoplasma interaction, the comprehensive sRNA changes of mulberry leaf in response to phytoplasma-infection were examined. A total of 164 conserved miRNAs and 23 novel miRNAs were identified, and 62 conserved miRNAs and 13 novel miRNAs were found to be involved in the response to phytoplasma-infection. Meanwhile, target genes of the responsive miRNAs were identified by sequencing of the degradome library. In addition, the endogenous siRNAs were sequenced, and their expression profiles were characterized. Interestingly, we found that phytoplasma infection induced the accumulation of mul-miR393-5p which was resulted from the increased transcription of MulMIR393A, and mul-miR393-5p most likely initiate the biogenesis of siRNAs from TIR1 transcript. Based on the results, we can conclude that phytoplasma-responsive sRNAs modulate multiple hormone pathways and play crucial roles in the regulation of development and metabolism. These responsive sRNAs may work cooperatively in the response to phytoplasma-infection and be responsible for some symptoms in the infected plants.