Absence of gut microbiota impairs depletion of Paneth cells but not goblet cells in germ-free Atoh1lox/lox VilCreERT2 mice.

Mouse atonal homolog 1 (Math1/Atoh1) is a basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor important for the differentiation of secretory cells within the intestinal epithelium. The analysis of Paneth depletion efficiency on Math1lox/loxVilCreERT2 (Math1ΔIEC) mice treatment with tamoxifen in the presence or absence of intestinal microbiota showed a failure on Paneth cell depletion in germ-free mice as compared with specific pathogen-free (SPF) mice. However, goblet cells were efficiently depleted in Math1ΔIEC germ-free mice. The gene expression of Math1 was significantly reduced in the ileum of germ-free Math1ΔIEC mice 5 days after tamoxifen injection as compared with germ-free control, but its protein expression was still detectable in the nuclei of epithelial cells in the crypts. Germ-free mice showed low proliferative ileal crypts and apoptotic cells that were mainly detected in the tip of the villus, consistent with a slow turnover rate of epithelial cells. Although Paneth cells were not depleted in germ-free Math1ΔIEC mice for the first 7 wk after the last tamoxifen injection, far already from the 5 days time-laps observed in SPF conditions, an incomplete depletion of Paneth cells was observed 14 wk after the last tamoxifen injection. Colonization of germ-free mice restored the phenotype observed in SPF mice, highlighting the regulatory role of gut microbes in our model. We conclude that absence of intestinal microbiota in Math1ΔIEC mice is associated with reduced epithelial cell renewal and delays the depletion of preexisting Paneth cells.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cre-lox system is a powerful and widely used research tool developed to understand the specific role of genes. It allows to control the spatial and temporal expression of genes in experimental models. Several limitations including toxicity of Cre recombinase or incomplete excision of floxed loci have been reported in the past. To date, this is the first research study reporting that gut microbes also influence the expected phenotype of Paneth cell depletion in the genetically modified Math1lox/loxVilCreERT2 mouse model.

Circulating levels of butyrate are inversely related to portal hypertension, endotoxemia, and systemic inflammation in patients with cirrhosis.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are gut microbiota-derived products that participate in maintaining the gut barrier integrity and host's immune response. We hypothesize that reduced SCFA levels are associated with systemic inflammation, endotoxemia, and more severe hemodynamic alterations in cirrhosis. Patients with cirrhosis referred for a hepatic venous pressure gradient (HVPG) measurement (n = 62) or a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt placement (n = 12) were included. SCFAs were measured in portal (when available), hepatic, and peripheral blood samples by GC-MS. Serum endotoxins, proinflammatory cytokines, and NO levels were quantified. SCFA levels were significantly higher in portal vs. hepatic and peripheral blood. There were inverse relationships between SCFAs and the severity of disease. SCFAs (mainly butyric acid) inversely correlated with the model for end-stage liver disease score and were further reduced in patients with history of ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. There was an inverse relationship between butyric acid and HVPG values. SCFAs were directly related with systemic vascular resistance and inversely with cardiac index. Butyric acid inversely correlated with inflammatory markers and serum endotoxin. A global reduction in the blood levels of SCFA in patients with cirrhosis is associated with a more advanced liver disease, suggesting its contribution to disease progression.-Juanola, O., Ferrusquía-Acosta, J., García-Villalba, R., Zapater, P., Magaz, M., Marín, A., Olivas, P., Baiges, A., Bellot, P., Turon, F., Hernández-Gea, V., González-Navajas, J. M., Tomás-Barberán, F. A., García-Pagán, J. C., Francés, R. Circulating levels of butyrate are inversely related to portal hypertension, endotoxemia, and systemic inflammation in patients with cirrhosis.

Bacterial antigen translocation and age as BMI-independent contributing factors on systemic inflammation in NAFLD patients.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Low-grade systemic inflammation is a crucial landmark in NAFLD favouring disease progression and comorbidities. We evaluated the input of circulating bacterial antigens on systemic markers of inflammation in NAFLD patients. PATIENTS & METHODS: Multicenter cross-sectional study including consecutive patients with biopsy-proven NAFLD. Demographic, metabolic and fibrosis-related variables were collected. Circulating bacterial antigens were quantified in blood. Toll-like receptor SNPs were genotyped. Serum cytokine levels were evaluated. Peripheral blood mononuclear cell response to bacterial antigens was evaluated in vitro. RESULTS: Three hundred and fifteen patients from five Spanish hospitals were distributed by BMI. At least, one bacterial antigenic type was found in 66 patients with BMI < 30 (63.4%) and 163 patients with BMI > 30 (77.3%) (P = .014). HOMA-IR was significantly higher in the presence of circulating antigens among patients with BMI < 30. NASH and significant fibrosis in non-obese patients were more frequent in the presence of at least two circulating antigenic types. Allelic frequencies of TLR variants were similar to controls and did not affect clinical or laboratory parameters. Pro-inflammatory cytokines were significantly increased in patients with bacterial antigens, regardless of BMI. TLR gene and protein expression levels were significantly increased in PBMCs from patients with bacterial antigens. Antigen concentrations independently influenced TNF-α and IL-6, in both BMI subgroups of patients. Age independently influenced TNF-α and IL-6 in non-obese patients, and TNF-α in obese patients. CONCLUSION: Serum circulating bacterial antigens as well as age were BMI-independent factors related to increased systemic inflammation in NAFLD and provides insight on the multifaceted sources of inflammation in these patients.

FXR modulates the gut-vascular barrier by regulating the entry sites for bacterial translocation in experimental cirrhosis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Pathological bacterial translocation (PBT) in cirrhosis is the hallmark of spontaneous bacterial infections, increasing mortality several-fold. Increased intestinal permeability is known to contribute to PBT in cirrhosis, although the role of the mucus layer has not been addressed in detail. A clear route of translocation for luminal intestinal bacteria is yet to be defined, but we hypothesize that the recently described gut-vascular barrier (GVB) is impaired in experimental portal hypertension, leading to increased accessibility of the vascular compartment for translocating bacteria. MATERIALS: Cirrhosis was induced in mouse models using bile-duct ligation (BDL) and CCl4. Pre-hepatic portal-hypertension was induced by partial portal vein ligation (PPVL). Intestinal permeability was compared in these mice after GFP-Escherichia coli or different sized FITC-dextrans were injected into the intestine. RESULTS: Healthy and pre-hepatic portal-hypertensive (PPVL) mice lack translocation of FITC-dextran and GFP-E. coli from the small intestine to the liver, whereas BDL and CCl4-induced cirrhotic mice demonstrate pathological translocation, which is not altered by prior thoracic-duct ligation. The mucus layer is reduced in thickness, with loss of goblet cells and Muc2-staining and expression in cirrhotic but not PPVL mice. These changes are associated with bacterial overgrowth in the inner mucus layer and pathological translocation of GFP-E. coli through the ileal epithelium. GVB is profoundly altered in BDL and CCl4-mice with Ileal extravasation of large-sized 150 kDa-FITC-dextran, but only slightly altered in PPVL mice. This pathological endothelial permeability and accessibility in cirrhotic mice is associated with augmented expression of PV1 in intestinal vessels. OCA but not fexaramine stabilizes the GVB, whereas both FXR-agonists ameliorate gut to liver translocation of GFP-E. coli. CONCLUSIONS: Cirrhosis, but not portal hypertension per se, grossly impairs the endothelial and muco-epithelial barriers, promoting PBT to the portal-venous circulation. Both barriers appear to be FXR-modulated, with FXR-agonists reducing PBT via the portal-venous route. LAY SUMMARY: For intestinal bacteria to enter the systemic circulation, they must cross the mucus and epithelial layer, as well as the gut-vascular barrier. Cirrhosis disrupts all 3 of these barriers, giving bacteria access to the portal-venous circulation and thus, the gut-liver axis. Diminished luminal bile acid availability, cirrhosis and the associated reduction in farnesoid x receptor (FXR) signaling seem, at least partly, to mediate these changes, as FXR-agonists reduce bacterial translocation via the portal-venous route to the liver in cirrhosis.

Improved hemodynamic and liver function in portal hypertensive cirrhotic rats after administration of B. pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765.

PURPOSE: Evaluating whether changes in gut microbiota induced by a bifidobacterial strain may have an effect on the hepatic vascular function in portal hypertensive cirrhotic rats. METHODS: Bile duct ligation (BDL) was performed in rats. A subgroup of animals received B. pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 (109 cfu/daily ig.) for 1 week prior to laparotomy. Hemodynamic, biochemical and inflammatory markers were evaluated. Ileal microbiota composition was identified. Statistical analysis was performed. RESULTS: Sham-operated (n = 6), BDL (n = 6) and BDL treated with bifidobacteria (n = 8) rats were included. B. pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 significantly decreased proteobacteria (p = 0.001) and increased Bacteroidetes (p = 0.001) relative abundance. The bifidobacteria decreased the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio in the BDL model (p = 0.03). BDL with bifidobacteria vs BDL rats showed: significantly reduced portal vein area, portal flow, congestion index, alkaline phosphatase and total bilirubin, significantly increased serum cytokines and nitric oxide levels, gene expression levels of bile acids receptor FXR and endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Quantitative changes in the Clostridiales and Bacteroidales orders were independently associated with variations in portal vein area and portal flow, while changes in the Proteobacteria phylum were independently associated with congestion. Variations in all liver function markers significantly correlated with total OTUs mainly in the Firmicutes, but only changes in the Clostridiales were independently associated with alkaline phosphatase in the ANCOVA analysis. CONCLUSION: Hemodynamic alterations and liver dysfunction induced by BDL in rats are partially restored after oral administration of B. pseudocatenulatum CECT7765. Results provide a proof-of-concept for the beneficial effect of this bifidobacterial strain in reducing complications derived from portal hypertension in cirrhosis.

Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 induces an M2 anti-inflammatory transition in macrophages from patients with cirrhosis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Patients with cirrhosis show recurrent access of bacterial products into the bloodstream inducing a multi-altered immunological status leading to relevant complications. We aimed at evaluating Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 effect on the host's macrophage function. PATIENTS & METHODS: Patients with cirrhosis and ascites were included. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) monocyte-derived and ascitic fluid (AF) macrophages were cultured with M-CSF, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and/or the bifidobacterial strain. Pellets and supernatants were evaluated for gene expression of M1 and M2-related genes and cytokine secretion. Cell surface expression molecules were evaluated by flow cytometry. Kupffer cells from bile duct ligated and CCl4 rats were also evaluated. RESULTS: Experiments were run on GM-CSF blood-derived and AF macrophages from 10 patients with cirrhosis and 10 healthy donors. Different macrophage morphology was observed by optical microscopy in cells stimulated with bifidobacteria vs. LPS. M2-like expression of CD206, CD163 and CD16 was significantly increased in macrophages after stimulation with the bifidobacterial strain vs. LPS. B. pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 was able to significantly change the cytokine secretion pattern of blood-derived and AF macrophages and Kupffer cells from bile duct ligated and CCl4 cirrhotic rats compared to that induced by LPS. B. pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 was also effective in inducing a phenotype transition and a functional change from an M1- to an M2-related gene expression and cytokine secretion pattern in AF macrophages even after LPS-pretreatment. B. pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 did not reduce AF macrophage bacterial killing capacity. CONCLUSION: B. pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 induces a morphologic, phenotypic and functional transition towards an anti-inflammatory profile in GM-CSF monocyte-derived and AF macrophages from patients with cirrhosis that may help in controlling sustained inflammation in decompensated cirrhosis.

Gut Bacterial DNA Translocation is an Independent Risk Factor of Flare at Short Term in Patients With Crohn's Disease.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed at evaluating bacterial DNA (bactDNA) presence in blood of Crohn's disease (CD) patients in remission as an independent risk factor of flare at 6 months. METHODS: This is a prospective, multicenter study on CD patients with Crohn's disease activity index (CDAI)<150. The primary end point was time-to-relapse as evaluated by CDAI>150 in the following 6 months. BactDNA in blood, the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2 (NOD2) genotype, and serum cytokine levels were determined at baseline. RESULTS: A total of 288 patients were included. BactDNA was detected in 98 patients (34.0%). A variant-NOD2 genotype was identified in 114 patients (39.6%). Forty patients (14%) relapsed during follow-up. Multivariate survival analysis identified bactDNA as an independent risk factor of flare (hazard ratio (HR) 8.75 (4.02-19.06) 95% confidence interval (CI)). Hospitalization, surgery, switch of treatment, initiation and escalation of anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) therapy, steroids initiation, and increased fecal calprotectin levels at 6 months were associated with bactDNA at baseline. A logistic regression analysis showed bactDNA as an independent and significant predictive factor of hospitalization (odds ratio (OR) 11.9 (3.4-42.3); P<0.001), steroids startup (OR 8.5 (2.7-27.1); P<0.001), and switch of treatment (OR 3.5 (1.6-7.7); P=0.002) at 6 months. No relationship was observed between bactDNA and mucosal lesions in patients with colonoscopy at admission. Serum pro-inflammatory cytokines were significantly increased in patients with bactDNA or a variant-NOD2 genotype. The combination of both factors induced decreased anti-TNF-α levels and a higher percentage of patients on intensified anti-TNF therapy. CONCLUSIONS: BactDNA is an independent risk factor of relapse at 6 months in CD patients. BactDNA is also independently associated with an increased risk of hospitalization, switch of treatment, and steroids initiation.

Selective intestinal decontamination with norfloxacin enhances a regulatory T cell-mediated inflammatory control mechanism in cirrhosis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Norfloxacin exerts immunomodulatory effects in cirrhosis beyond its bactericidal activity. We aimed at identifying the role of regulatory T (Treg) cells in the norfloxacin mechanism that compensates the inflammatory environment in cirrhosis. PATIENTS & METHODS: Consecutively admitted patients with cirrhosis and ascitic fluid (AF) with: spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP), non-infected AF, and norfloxacin as secondary SBP prophylaxis (SID group). Tregs were defined by flow-cytometry as CD4+ CD25+ FoxP3+ cells. Dendritic cells (DCs) were purified for co-stimulatory signalling evaluation and norfloxacin and IL-10 levels were measured in serum. Wildtype and recombination activating gene 1 (Rag1)-deficient mice with CCl4 -induced cirrhosis were used for adoptive-transfer experiments using naïve CD4+ T cells and Tregs. RESULTS: Eighty-four patients were included. Treg percentage was significantly increased in SID patients compared with SBP or non-infected AF patients. A positive correlation was observed between Tregs and serum norfloxacin and IL-10 levels. DCs from SID patients showed a significantly decreased expression of CD80 and CD86 compared with SBP and non-infected AF patients and correlated with norfloxacin levels. Modulation of co-stimulatory signalling by norfloxacin was not detected in Rag1-deficient mice and Rag1-deficient mice reconstituted with naïve T-cells. However, reconstitution with naïve T-cells and Tregs was associated with significantly downregulated CD80 and CD86 expression in the presence of norfloxacin. Norfloxacin immunomodulatory effect on IL-2 and IFN-gamma reduction and on the increase of IL-10 was significantly achieved only when the Tregs were restored in Rag1-deficient mice. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide a plausible mechanism for the immunomodulatory effects of norfloxacin in cirrhosis beyond its bactericidal effect.

Exploring the Relationship between Liver Disease, Bacterial Translocation, and Dysbiosis: Unveiling the Gut-Liver Axis.

Background: The global burden of liver disease and cirrhosis has been progressively increasing in the last decade. The interplay between gut microbiota and immune system and the bidirectional relationship with the liver, known as the gut-liver axis, has arisen as a fundamental aspect of liver disease. Summary: Alterations of the gut microbiome have been described and include both dysbiotic microbial signatures and intestinal bacterial overgrowth. The integrity of the intestinal epithelial barrier is essential for preventing the access of harmful substances and bacterial products into the host. Bacterial translocation due to altered host-microbiota interactions triggers local immune cell activation and facilitates a chronic inflammatory state that can ultimately lead to immune exhaustion, characteristic of cirrhosis. In cirrhosis, breakdown of the gut vascular barrier allows access of bacterial products to portal blood circulation and facilitates their influx into the liver, further contributing to disease progression. Key Messages: A better understanding of the contributing factors to pathological bacterial translocation and the impact of dysbiosis in liver disease will lead to achieve innovative therapeutic strategies in cirrhosis.

The mixed effect of Endocrine-Disrupting chemicals on biological age Acceleration: Unveiling the mechanism and potential intervention target.

INTRODUCTION: Although previous studies investigated the potential adverse effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) on biological age acceleration and aging-related diseases, the mixed effect of multiple types of EDCs on biological age acceleration, including its potential underlying mechanism, remains unclear. METHODS: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were used to analyze biological age measures, including Klemera-Doubal method biological age (KDM-BA), phenotypic age, and homeostatic dysregulation (HD). Weight quantile sum (WQS) regression was performed to screen biological age-related EDCs (BA-EDCs) and assess the mixed effect of BA-EDCs on biological age acceleration and aging-related disease. Targets of BA-EDCs were obtained from three databases, while heart aging-related genes were obtained from the Aging Anno database. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and MCODE algorithm were applied to identify potential interactions between BA-EDC targets and heart aging-related genes. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis were performed to identify related pathways. RESULTS: This cross-sectional study included 1,439 participants. A decile increase in BA-EDCs co-exposure was associated with 0.31 years and 0.17 years of KDM-BA and phenotypic age acceleration, respectively. The mixed effect of BA-EDCs was associated with an increased prevalence of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Vitamins C and E demonstrated a significant interaction effect on the association between BA-EDCs and KDM-BA acceleration. PPI network and functional enrichment analysis indicated that the AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications was significantly enriched. CONCLUSION: Our results showed that the co-exposure effect of BA-EDCs was associated with biological age acceleration and ASCVD, with the AGE-RAGE signaling pathway being the underlying mechanism. Vitamins C and E may also be an actionable target for preventing EDC-induced biological aging.

Paneth Cells Regulate Lymphangiogenesis under Control of Microbial Signals during Experimental Portal Hypertension.

Intestinal microbiota can modulate portal hypertension through the regulation of the intestinal vasculature. We have recently demonstrated that bacterial antigens activate Paneth cells (PCs) to secrete products that regulate angiogenesis and portal hypertension. In the present work we hypothesized that Paneth cells regulate the development of lymphatic vessels under the control of intestinal microbiota during experimental portal hypertension. We used a mouse model of inducible PCs depletion (Math1Lox/LoxVilCreERT2) and performed partial portal vein ligation (PPVL) to induce portal hypertension. After 14 days, we performed mRNA sequencing and evaluated the expression of specific lymphangiogenic genes in small intestinal tissue. Intestinal and mesenteric lymphatic vessels proliferation was assessed by immunohistochemistry. Intestinal organoids with or without PCs were exposed to pathogen-associated molecular patterns, and conditioned media (CM) was used to stimulate human lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs). The lymphangiogenic activity of stimulated LECs was assessed by tube formation and wound healing assays. Secretome analysis of CM was performed using label-free proteomics quantification methods. Intestinal immune cell infiltration was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. We observed that the intestinal gene expression pattern was altered by the absence of PCs only in portal hypertensive mice. We found a decreased expression of specific lymphangiogenic genes in the absence of PCs during portal hypertension, resulting in a reduced proliferation of intestinal and mesenteric lymphatic vessels as compared to controls. In vitro analyses demonstrated that lymphatic tube formation and endothelial wound healing responses were reduced significantly in LECs treated with CM from organoids without PCs. Secretome analyses of CM revealed that PCs secrete proteins that are involved in lipid metabolism, cell growth and proliferation. Additionally, intestinal macrophages infiltrated the ileal mucosa and submucosa of mice with and without Paneth cells in response to portal hypertension. Our results suggest that intestinal microbiota signals stimulate Paneth cells to secrete factors that modulate the intestinal and mesenteric lymphatic vessels network during experimental portal hypertension.

Bacterial Translocation as Inflammatory Driver in Crohn's Disease.

Crohn's disease (CD) is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the gastrointestinal tract responsible for intestinal lesions. The multifactorial etiology attributed to CD includes a combination of environmental and host susceptibility factors, which result in an impaired host-microbe gut interaction. Bacterial overgrowth and dysbiosis, increased intestinal barrier permeability, and altered inflammatory responses in patients with CD have been described in the past. Those events explain the pathogenesis of luminal translocation of bacteria or its products into the blood, a frequent event in CD, which, in turn, favors a sustained inflammatory response in these patients. In this review, we navigate through the interaction between bacterial antigen translocation, permeability of the intestinal barrier, immunologic response of the host, and genetic predisposition as a combined effect on the inflammatory response observed in CD. Several lines of evidence support that translocation of bacterial products leads to uncontrolled inflammation in CD patients, and as a matter of fact, the presence of gut bacterial genomic fragments at a systemic level constitutes a marker for increased risk of relapse among CD patients. Also, the significant percentage of CD patients who lose response to biologic therapies may be influenced by the translocation of bacterial products, which are well-known drivers of proinflammatory cytokine production by host immune cells. Further mechanistic studies evaluating cellular and humoral immune responses, gut microbiota alterations, and genetic predisposition will help clinicians to better control and personalize the management of CD patients in the future.

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Metabolic, Genetic, Epigenetic and Environmental Risk Factors.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most frequent causes of chronic liver disease in the Western world, probably due to the growing prevalence of obesity, metabolic diseases, and exposure to some environmental agents. In certain patients, simple hepatic steatosis can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which can sometimes lead to liver cirrhosis and its complications including hepatocellular carcinoma. Understanding the mechanisms that cause the progression of NAFLD to NASH is crucial to be able to control the advancement of the disease. The main hypothesis considers that it is due to multiple factors that act together on genetically predisposed subjects to suffer from NAFLD including insulin resistance, nutritional factors, gut microbiota, and genetic and epigenetic factors. In this article, we will discuss the epidemiology of NAFLD, and we overview several topics that influence the development of the disease from simple steatosis to liver cirrhosis and its possible complications.

Intestinal microbiota drives cholestasis-induced specific hepatic gene expression patterns.

Intestinal microbiota regulates multiple host metabolic and immunological processes. Consequently, any difference in its qualitative and quantitative composition is susceptible to exert significant effects, in particular along the gut-liver axis. Indeed, recent findings suggest that such changes modulate the severity and the evolution of a wide spectrum of hepatobiliary disorders. However, the mechanisms linking intestinal microbiota and the pathogenesis of liver disease remain largely unknown. In this work, we investigated how a distinct composition of the intestinal microbiota, in comparison with germ-free conditions, may lead to different outcomes in an experimental model of acute cholestasis. Acute cholestasis was induced in germ-free (GF) and altered Schaedler's flora (ASF) colonized mice by common bile duct ligation (BDL). Studies were performed 5 days after BDL and hepatic histology, gene expression, inflammation, lipids metabolism, and mitochondrial functioning were evaluated in normal and cholestatic mice. Differences in plasma concentration of bile acids (BA) were evaluated by UHPLC-HRMS. The absence of intestinal microbiota was associated with significant aggravation of hepatic bile infarcts after BDL. At baseline, we found the absence of gut microbiota induced altered expression of genes involved in the metabolism of fatty and amino acids. In contrast, acute cholestasis induced altered expression of genes associated with extracellular matrix, cell cycle, autophagy, activation of MAPK, inflammation, metabolism of lipids, and mitochondrial functioning pathways. Ductular reactions, cell proliferation, deposition of collagen 1 and autophagy were increased in the presence of microbiota after BDL whereas GF mice were more susceptible to hepatic inflammation as evidenced by increased gene expression levels of osteopontin, interleukin (IL)-1ß and activation of the ERK/MAPK pathway as compared to ASF colonized mice. Additonally, we found that the presence of microbiota provided partial protection to the mitochondrial functioning and impairment in the fatty acid metabolism after BDL. The concentration of the majority of BA markedly increased after BDL in both groups without remarkable differences according to the hygiene status of the mice. In conclusion, acute cholestasis induced more severe liver injury in GF mice compared to mice with limited intestinal bacterial colonization. This protective effect was associated with different hepatic gene expression profiles mostly related to tissue repair, metabolic and immune functions. Our findings suggest that microbial-induced differences may impact the course of cholestasis and modulate liver injury, offering a background for novel therapies based on the modulation of the intestinal microbiota.

Liver Sinusoidal Endothelial Cells Contribute to Hepatic Antigen-Presenting Cell Function and Th17 Expansion in Cirrhosis.

Hepatic immune function is compromised during cirrhosis. This study investigated the immune features of liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) in two experimental models of cirrhosis. Dendritic cells, hepatic macrophages, and LSECs were isolated from carbon tetrachloride and bile duct-ligated rats. Gene expression of innate receptors, bacterial internalization, co-stimulatory molecules induction, and CD4+ T cell activation and differentiation were evaluated. Induced bacterial peritonitis and norfloxacin protocols on cirrhotic rats were also carried out. LSECs demonstrated an active immunosurveillance profile, as shown by transcriptional modulation of different scavenger and cell-adhesion genes, and their contribution to bacterial internalization. LSECs significantly increased their expression of CD40 and CD80 and stimulated CD4+ T cell activation marker CD71 in both models. The pro-inflammatory Th17 subset was expanded in CCl4-derived LSECs co-cultures. In the bile duct ligation (BDL) model, CD4+ T cell differentiation only occurred under induced bacterial peritonitis conditions. Differentiated pro-inflammatory Th cells by LSECs in both experimental models were significantly reduced with norfloxacin treatment, whereas Foxp3 tolerogenic Th CD4+ cells were expanded. Conclusion: LSECs' participation in the innate-adaptive immune progression, their ability to stimulate pro-inflammatory CD4+ T cells expansion during liver damage, and their target role in norfloxacin-induced immunomodulation granted a specific competence to this cell population in cirrhosis.

Regulatory T Cells Restrict Permeability to Bacterial Antigen Translocation and Preserve Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Experimental Cirrhosis.

Intestinal permeability to translocation of bacterial products is increased in cirrhosis. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) remain central to the interplay between the host and microbial milieu. We propose that Tregs are involved in promoting gut barrier integrity and a balanced interaction with gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Carbon tetrachloride cirrhosis was induced in wild-type and recombination activating gene 1 (Rag1)-/- mice. Naive T cells and Treg cells were transferred into Rag1 -/- mice. Intestinal permeability was assessed in vivo after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) oral administration, and bacterial DNA presence was evaluated in mesenteric lymph nodes. Transcript and protein levels of tight-junction (TJ) proteins were measured in colonic tissue. Intestinal T helper profile in response to Escherichia coli (E. coli) was determined by flow cytometry. SCFAs were measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in colonic content before and after E. coli challenge. Rag1 -/- mice showed significantly increased permeability to LPS and bacterial DNA translocation rate compared with control mice. Naive T and Treg cotransfer significantly reduced gut permeability to bacterial antigen translocation and restored TJ protein expression in Rag1 -/- mice. Naive T and Treg replenishment in Rag1 -/- mice restrained proinflammatory differentiation of intestinal lymphocytes in response to E. coli. The main SCFA concentration resulted in significant reduction in Rag1 -/- mice after E. coli administration but remained unaltered after naive T and Tregs cotransfer. The reduced expression of SCFA receptors induced by E. coli was reestablished following naive T and Treg reconstitution in Rag1 -/- mice. Conclusion: The restriction of gut permeability, local inflammatory differentiation, and loss of bacteria-derived SCFAs foster the value of Tregs in preventing bacterial translocation in cirrhosis.

Toll-like receptor polymorphisms compromise the inflammatory response against bacterial antigen translocation in cirrhosis.

Bacterial translocation is associated with clinically relevant complications in cirrhosis. We evaluated the effect of toll-like receptor polymorphisms in the soluble response against these episodes. Consecutive patients with cirrhosis and ascitic fluid were distributed by TLR2 rs4696480, TLR4 rs4986790, and TLR9 rs187084 single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Lipoteichoic acid, lipopolyssaccharide, bacterial-DNA, pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide levels were quantified in serum samples. In vitro response against specific ligands in variant TLR genotypes was evaluated. One hundred and fourteen patients were included. Variant TLR-2, TLR-4 and TLR-9 SNP genotypes were associated with significantly increased serum levels of LTA, LPS and bacterial-DNA. TNF-α, IL-6 and nitric oxide serum levels were significantly decreased in all variant TLR genotyped patients. Cytokine levels were significantly less upregulated in response to specific TLR-ligands in patients with all variant vs wildtype TLR genotypes. Although in vitro gene expression levels of all wildtype and variant TLRs were similar, MyD88 and NFkB were significantly downregulated in cells from TLR-variant genotyped patients in response to their ligands. Variant TLR genotypes are associated with an increased circulating antigen burden and a decreased proinflammatory response in cirrhosis. This immunodeficiency may facilitate bacteria-related complications in cirrhosis and enhance TLR targeting for its management.

IL26 modulates cytokine response and anti-TNF consumption in Crohn's disease patients with bacterial DNA.

Interleukin IL26 supports killing of microbes and the innate sensing of bacterial-derived DNA (bactDNA). We evaluated the relationship between IL26 serum levels and bactDNA translocation in Crohn's disease (CD). We ran a prospective study on CD patients in remission. IL26 common polymorphisms, serum cytokines and complement protein, amplified-bactDNA, and anti-TNF-α were evaluated. In vitro PBMC analysis was performed. Three hundred and thirteen patients were included (mean CDAI: 83.6 ± 32.8; mean fecal calprotectin: 55.4 ± 35.3 µg/g). A total of 106 patients (33.8%) showed bactDNA and 223 patients (71%) had a varIL26 genotype. BactDNA significantly correlated with increased IL26 levels compared with bactDNA-negative patients. PBMCs from varIL26 patients significantly reduced E. coli killing capacity compared with wtIL26-genotyped patients. The stimulation with a recombinant IL26 protein reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to E. coli in the varIL26 cell supernatants. Serum anti-TNF-α levels in varIL26 vs wtIL26-genotyped patients on biologics were significantly lower in the presence of bactDNA. Cells from varIL26 vs wtIL26-genotyped patients cultured with E. coli DNA and infliximab showed a significant decrease in free anti-TNF-α concentration. A varIL26 genotype was associated with the initiation of anti-TNF-α in CD patients during the 6-month follow-up. IL26 polymorphisms may prevent bactDNA clearance and identify CD patients with a worse inflammatory evolution and response to therapy. KEY MESSAGES: BactDNA translocation in CD is associated with an increased risk of relapse. IL26 is sensitive to bactDNA and modulates the inflammatory response in CD patients. The varIL26 genotype is associated with reduced PMN capacity to kill bacteria. A varIL26 genotype is associated with decreased levels of anti-TNF-α in CD patients. IL26 may help explain the role of bactDNA as a risk factor of flare in CD patients.

Anti-TNF-alpha loss of response is associated with a decreased percentage of FoxP3+ T cells and a variant NOD2 genotype in patients with Crohn's disease.

BACKGROUND: Anti-TNF-α therapies interact with the tolerogenic response in patients with Crohn's disease, modulating inflammation. However, drug levels and the genetic background may affect this interaction. METHODS: Patients with Crohn's disease in remission on biologic monotherapy were enrolled in this study. FoxP3+ lymphocytes, NOD2 genotype, serum cytokine, anti-TNF-α levels, and anti-drug antibodies were evaluated. Regulatory T cell response to infliximab was evaluated in vitro. RESULTS: Fifty-seven patients were included. Thirty-nine patients (68.4%) were receiving non-intensified biologic therapy whereas 18 patients (31.6%) were under an intensified biologic schedule due to loss of response. Eleven intensified patients (61.1%) showed a variant NOD2 genotype vs 9 on non-intensified biologics (23%, p < 0.01). Percentage of FoxP3+ T cells and serum free anti-TNF-α levels were significantly higher in patients with a wild-type vs variant NOD2 genotype, either under non-intensified or intensified schedule. Increasing amounts of infliximab significantly increased the expression of FoxP3+ T cells and anti-TNF-α levels in the supernatant from wild-type NOD2 patients cultured cells whereas the induction of FoxP3+ T cells and anti-TNF-α levels in the supernatant from variant NOD2 patients cultured cells were significantly lower. TNF-α and IL-10 showed a correlation with the FoxP3+ T cell population percentage and serum levels of anti-TNF-α, irrespective of NOD2 genotype. Eight variant NOD2 patients (66.6%) vs 4 wild-type NOD2 patients (8.8%) showed a perianal phenotype (p = 0.01). A significant reduction of the percentage of FoxP3+ T cells and serum levels of anti-TNF-α was observed in patients with the associated perianal disease. CONCLUSION: Anti-TNF-α loss of response is associated with a decreased percentage of FoxP3+ T cells and a variant NOD2 genotype in patients with CD.