Physical Activity to Prevent the Age-Related Decline of Endogenous Pain Modulation.

As humans age, the capacity of the central nervous system to endogenously modulate pain significantly deteriorates, thereby increasing the risk for the development of chronic pain. Older adults are the least physically active cohort of all age groups. We hypothesize that a sedentary lifestyle and decreased physical activity may contribute to the decline of endogenous pain modulation associated with aging.

Predictors of Physical Activity in Patients With Fibromyalgia: A Path Analysis.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to identify psychological factors that influence moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) participation in patients with fibromyalgia. METHODS: In this secondary data analysis, 170 patients received personalized exercise plans and completed baseline and follow-up assessments of self-reported physical activity at weeks 12, 24, and 36. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the predictive strengths of psychological factors (exercise self-efficacy, perceived barriers, and intention) on MVPA participation. RESULTS: Using a threshold increase in MVPA of 10 or greater metabolic equivalent hours per week (MET h/wk), 3 groups were defined based on subjects who achieved a minimum increase of 10 MET h/wk that was sustained for at least 12 weeks (SUS-PA), achieved an increase of 10 MET h/wk that was not sustained for at least 12 weeks (UNSUS-PA), and did not achieve an increase of 10 MET h/wk (LO-PA). Increases in exercise self-efficacy and intention and reductions in perceived barriers were associated with increased volume of PA, showing the greatest change in the SUS-PA, followed by UNSUS-PA. For the LO-PA group, there was no change in exercise self-efficacy, a decrease in intention, and an increase in barriers. Using path analysis, exercise self-efficacy and perceived barriers were associated with higher volumes of physical activity via greater intention to engage in MVPA. CONCLUSIONS: For patients with fibromyalgia, exercise self-efficacy, perceived barriers, and intention to exercise are important constructs for increasing physical activity. Our findings provide guidance for practitioners who seek to promote physical activity in fibromyalgia and suggestions for researchers aiming to improve prediction models.

Insulin resistance and adipose-derived hormones in young men with untreated obstructive sleep apnea.

PURPOSE: Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) increases the risk for insulin resistance (IR). The mechanisms that link the two are not clear and are frequently confounded by obesity. OSA is associated with alterations in adipose-derived hormones (adipokines) that increase IR; however, previous studies have focused on middle-aged and older adults. The objective of this study was to determine if IR and alterations in adipokines exist in young men with OSA, independent of obesity. METHODS: Subjects were assigned into the following groups based on body mass index and presence of OSA: obese with OSA (OSA, n = 12), obese without OSA (NOSA, n = 18), and normal weight without OSA (CON, n = 15). Fasting blood was obtained for batch analysis of biomarkers of IR. The homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) method was used to assess IR. RESULTS: HOMA and leptin were higher in the OSA group than the CON group. There were no differences in insulin, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) between the OSA and NOSA groups. Adiponectin was lower in the OSA group vs. NOSA and CON; however, when controlled for central abdominal fat (CAF), the difference was nullified. When controlled for total body adiposity, however, CAF was 24 % higher in the subjects with OSA vs. subjects without OSA. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that excess CAF in young men with OSA may contribute to risk for type 2 diabetes indirectly by a degree that would otherwise not be reached through obesity, although further research is needed.

Physical Activity Intensity, Perceived Exertion, and Enjoyment During Head-Mounted Display Virtual Reality Games.

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to determine the following: (1) the level of physical activity (PA) achieved during commercial active virtual reality (VR) games, and (2) which active VR games elicit higher enjoyment levels in young, healthy adults. Materials and Methods: Thirty-six participants completed four study sessions, each devoted to playing one of the following head-mounted display VR games for 15 minutes: Beat Saber (BS), Holopoint (HP), Hot Squat (HS), and Relax Walk VR. PA intensity measures included percentage of heart rate reserve (%HRR), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and accelerometry. Enjoyment was measured with the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) following each gaming session. Mixed-model analysis of variances were used to analyze the outcome measures. Results: The analyses showed that HS elicited significantly higher %HRR and RPE than BS, HP, and Relax Walk. HS was the only game to reach moderate intensity via %HRR. Accelerometer data showed that time in whole-body moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for HS was significantly greater than HP, which was greater than BS and Relax Walk. Also, males exhibited significantly more whole-body and upper limb MVPA compared with females during gameplay. BS and HP were rated significantly more enjoyable than HS and Relax Walk. Conclusions: Results from this study suggest that active VR games can elicit varying degrees of PA intensity levels in young healthy adults, with HS eliciting moderate intensity activity. The games rated highest in enjoyment required mostly arm movement and a perceived light exertion. ClinicalTrials: NCT04221139.

Obesity Moderates the Effects of Motivational Interviewing Treatment Outcomes in Fibromyalgia.

OBJECTIVE: Obesity is a common comorbid condition among patients with fibromyalgia (FM). Our objective was to assess if obesity moderates the treatment benefits of exercise-based motivational interviewing (MI) for FM. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This is a secondary data analysis of a completed clinical trial of 198 FM patients who were randomized to receive either MI or attention control (AC). Using body mass index (BMI) to divide participants into obese (BMI≥30 kg/m) and nonobese (BMI<30 kg m) groups, mixed linear models were used to determine interaction between treatment arms and obesity status with regards to the primary outcome of global FM symptom severity (Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire, FIQ). Secondary measures included pain intensity (Brief Pain Inventory), 6-Minute Walk Test, and self-reported physical activity (Community Health Activities Model Program for Seniors). RESULTS: Of the 198 participants, 91 (46%) were nonobese and 107 (54%) were obese. On global FM symptom severity (FIQ), the interaction between treatment arms and obesity status was significant (P=0.02). In the nonobese group, MI was associated with a greater improvement in FIQ than AC. In the obese group, MI participants reported less improvement in FIQ compared with AC. The interaction analysis was also significant for Brief Pain Inventory pain intensity (P=0.01), but not for the walk test and self-reported physical activity. DISCUSSION: This is the first study to show that obesity negatively affects the treatment efficacy of MI in patients with FM. Our findings suggest that exercise-based MI may be more effective if initiated after weight loss is achieved.

Unique cardiopulmonary exercise test responses in overweight middle-aged adults with obstructive sleep apnea.

BACKGROUND: Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is characterized by repetitive nighttime obstructions of the upper airway that induce hypoxemia, hypercapnia, sympathetic activation, and arousals. This disorder induces cardiovascular autonomic imbalance and contributes to the development of hypertension. While the diagnostic and prognostic utility of exercise testing is well established in cardiology, the clinical utility of the exercise test in screening for OSA has not been carefully explored. To explore this potential application, we contrasted cardiopulmonary responses to exercise testing in patients recently diagnosed with OSA with apparently healthy counterparts of similar physical inactivity history, age, and body habitus. METHODS: Twenty-three normotensive overweight adults with OSA [apnea-hypopnea index (AHI)=24.7+/-13.5 events h(-1); body mass index (BMI)=33.1+/-5.5 kg m(-2); age=45.6+/-10.7 years] and nine apparently healthy controls of similar age and morphology (BMI=29.5+/-5.5 kg m(-2); age=40.2+/-8.1 years; AHI=4.9+/-0.1) completed a maximal ramping cardiopulmonary exercise tolerance test on a cycle ergometer. Measures included oxygen consumption (VO(2)pk), ventilation (V(E)), heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), cardiac output (Qc), and stroke volume (SV). RESULTS: Age, BMI, rest HR, rest BP, rest and exercise cardiac index (QI), rest and exercise stroke volume index (SVI), and V O(2)pk were not different between OSA patients and controls (p>0.05). Exercise heart rate was significantly lower and diastolic BP higher in the OSA group (p<0.05). In the physically active recovery (low-load pedaling), systolic BP recovery was delayed (p<0.05) in the OSA group while diastolic BP tended to remain higher (p=0.056). CONCLUSION: Patients with OSA have a distinctive response to graded exercise, characterized by a blunted HR response, markedly delayed systolic BP response in early recovery, and elevated diastolic BP in both exercise and early recovery. Clinical trials are justified to determine the clinical utility of graded exercise testing to independently inform clinical decision-making for triaging patients to diagnostic polysomnography.

Determining the Minimal Clinically Important Difference for 6-Minute Walk Distance in Fibromyalgia.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to estimate the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) for 6-min walk distance (6MWD) in patients with fibromyalgia. DESIGN: Data from a recently completed trial that included 187 patients who completed the 6-min walk test, Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire (FIQ), and Short-Form 36 (SF36) at 12 and 36 wks were used to examine longitudinal changes in 6MWD. An anchor-based approach that used linear regression analyses was used to determine the MCID for 6MWD, using the total FIQ score (FIQ-Total) and SF36-physical function domain as clinical anchors. RESULTS: The mean (SD) change in 6MWD from baseline to week 36 was 34.4 (65.2) m (P < 0.001). The anchor-based MCIDs for the 6MWD were 156 and 167 m for the FIQ and SF36-physical function domain, respectively. These MCIDs correspond with clinically meaningful improvements in FIQ (14% reduction) and SF36-physical function domain (10-point increase). CONCLUSION: The MCID for 6MWD in patients with fibromyalgia was 156 to 167 m. These findings provide the first evidence of the change in 6MWD that is perceived by patients to be clinically meaningful. Further research using other MCID calculation methods is needed to refine estimates of the MCID for 6MWD in patients with fibromyalgia.

Does increasing steps per day predict improvement in physical function and pain interference in adults with fibromyalgia?

OBJECTIVE: To examine the concurrent and predictive associations between the number of steps taken per day and clinical outcomes in patients with fibromyalgia (FM). METHODS: A total of 199 adults with FM (mean age 46.1 years, 95% women) who were enrolled in a randomized clinical trial wore a hip-mounted accelerometer for 1 week and completed self-report measures of physical function (Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire-Physical Impairment [FIQ-PI], Short Form 36 [SF-36] health survey physical component score [PCS], pain intensity and interference (Brief Pain Inventory [BPI]), and depressive symptoms (Patient Health Questionnaire-8 [PHQ-8]) as part of their baseline and followup assessments. Associations of steps per day with self-report clinical measures were evaluated from baseline to week 12 using multivariate regression models adjusted for demographic and baseline covariates. RESULTS: Study participants were primarily sedentary, averaging 4,019 ± 1,530 steps per day. Our findings demonstrate a linear relationship between the change in steps per day and improvement in health outcomes for FM. Incremental increases on the order of 1,000 steps per day were significantly associated with (and predictive of) improvements in FIQ-PI, SF-36 PCS, BPI pain interference, and PHQ-8 (all P < 0.05). Although higher step counts were associated with lower FIQ and BPI pain intensity scores, these were not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: Step count is an easily obtained and understood objective measure of daily physical activity. An exercise prescription that includes recommendations to gradually accumulate at least 5,000 additional steps per day may result in clinically significant improvements in outcomes relevant to patients with FM. Future studies are needed to elucidate the dose-response relationship between steps per day and patient outcomes in FM.

Effect of moderate to vigorous physical activity on long-term clinical outcomes and pain severity in fibromyalgia.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship between long-term maintenance of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and clinical outcomes in fibromyalgia (FM). METHODS: Patients with FM (n = 170) received individualized exercise prescriptions and completed baseline and followup physical activity assessments using the Community Health Activities Model Program for Seniors questionnaire at weeks 12, 24, and 36. The primary outcome was the change in the Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire-Physical Impairment (FIQ-PI) score. The secondary outcomes included improvements in overall well-being (FIQ total score), pain severity ratings, and depression. RESULTS: Using a threshold increase in MVPA of ≥10 metabolic equivalent hours/week above usual activities, 27 subjects (15.9%) increased and sustained (SUS-PA), 68 (40%) increased but then declined (UNSUS-PA), and 75 (44.1%) did not achieve (LO-PA) this benchmark. Compared to LO-PA subjects, both SUS-PA and UNSUS-PA subjects reported greater improvement in FIQ-PI (P < 0.01) and FIQ total score (P < 0.05). Additionally, the SUS-PA group reported greater improvement in pain severity compared to the LO-PA group (P < 0.05). However, there were no significant group differences between SUS-PA and UNSUS-PA for any primary or secondary outcome measure. CONCLUSION: Increased participation in MVPA for at least 12 weeks improved physical function and overall well-being in patients with FM. Although sustained physical activity was not associated with greater clinical benefit compared with unsustained physical activity, these findings also suggest that performing greater volumes of physical activity is not associated with worsening pain in FM. Future research is needed to determine the relationship between sustained MVPA participation and subsequent improvement in patient outcomes.

Association between sleep disorders, obesity, and exercise: a review.

Decreased sleep duration and quality is associated with an increase in body weight and adiposity. Insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, and restless legs syndrome are three of the most prevalent types of sleep disorder that lead to an increased risk for numerous chronic health conditions. Various studies have examined the impact of these sleep disorders on obesity, and are an important link in understanding the relationship between sleep disorders and chronic disease. Physical activity and exercise are important prognostic tools in obesity and chronic disease, and numerous studies have explored the relationship between obesity, sleep disorders, and exercise. As such, this review will examine the relationship between sleep disorders and obesity. In addition, how sleep disorders may impact the exercise response and how exercise may impact patient outcomes with regard to sleep disorders will also be reviewed.

Association of Obstructive Sleep Apnea Severity with Exercise Capacity and Health-related Quality of Life.

BACKGROUND: Current research is inconclusive as to whether obstructive sleep apnea severity directly limits exercise capacity and lowers health-related quality of life (HRQoL). AIMS: The aim of this study was to evaluate the association of obstructive sleep apnea severity with determinants of exercise capacity and HRQoL. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Subjects were evaluated by home somnography and classified as no obstructive sleep apnea (n = 43) or as having mild (n = 27), moderate or severe obstructive sleep apnea (n = 21). Exercise capacity was assessed by a ramping cycle ergometer test, and HRQoL was assessed with the SF-36 questionnaire. RESULTS: Greater obstructive sleep apnea severity was associated with older age, higher body weight, higher body mass index, lower peak aerobic capacity, a higher percentage of peak aerobic capacity at a submaximal exercise intensity of 55 watts, and lower physical component summary score from the SF-36. None of these variables were statistically different among obstructive sleep apnea severity groups after controlling for age and body weight. Obstructive sleep apnea severity was not associated with any cardiorespiratory fitness or HRQoL parameter. CONCLUSIONS: Obstructive sleep apnea severity has no independent association with exercise capacity or HRQoL.

Research to encourage exercise for fibromyalgia (REEF): use of motivational interviewing, outcomes from a randomized-controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: Regular exercise is associated with important benefits in patients with fibromyalgia (FM). Unfortunately, long-term maintenance of exercise after a structured program is rare. The present study tested the efficacy of Motivational Interviewing (MI) to promote exercise and improve symptoms in patients with FM. METHODS: A total of 216 patients with FM were randomized to 6 MI sessions (n=107) or an equal number of FM self-management lessons (education control/EC, n=109). Co-primary endpoints were an increase of 30 minutes in moderate-vigorous physical activity and improvement in the Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire (FIQ)-Physical Impairment score, assessed at pretreatment, posttreatment, and 3-month and 6-month follow-up. Secondary outcomes included clinically meaningful improvements in FIQ score, pain severity ratings, and a 6-minute walk test. RESULTS: There were no significant treatment group differences in either co-primary endpoint at 6-month follow-up. However, more MI participants than controls exhibited meaningful improvements in FIQ score at 6-month follow-up (62.9% vs. 49.5%, P=0.06). Compared with EC participants, MI participants also displayed a larger increment in their 6-minute walk test (43.9 vs. 24.8 m, P=0.03). In addition, MI was superior to EC in increasing the number of hours of physical activity immediately postintervention and in reducing pain severity both immediately after the intervention and at 3-month follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a lack of benefits on long-term outcome, MI seems to have short-term benefits with respect to self-report physical activity and clinical outcomes. This is the first study in FM that explicitly addresses exercise maintenance as a primary aim.

Research to Encourage Exercise for Fibromyalgia (REEF): use of motivational interviewing design and method.

Fibromyalgia (FM), defined as the presence of both chronic widespread pain and the finding of 11/18 tender points on examination, is an illness associated with major personal and societal burden. Supervised aerobic exercise is an important treatment modality to improve patient symptoms. Unfortunately, adherence to an exercise regimen after a structured supervised program is disappointingly low. Since FM is a chronic illness, studies are needed to test strategies that would enhance exercise adherence in these individuals. Individuals who are able to adhere to exercise almost always maintain the symptomatic benefits of exercise. The objective of this paper was to describe the protocol of the Research to Encourage Exercise for Fibromyalgia (REEF). REEF is a randomized attention-controlled trial that seeks to test the efficacy of 6 sessions of telephone delivered motivational interviewing (MI) that targets exercise adherence to improve FM-relevant clinical outcomes (i.e., physical function and pain severity). The trial has recently completed enrolling 216 subjects, and randomization has resulted in well-balanced groups. Details on the study design, MI program, and treatment fidelity are provided in the paper. Outcome assessments at week 12, week 24 and week 36 will test the immediate, intermediate and long-term effects of exercise-based MI on adherence (as measured by the Community Health Activities Model Program for Seniors/CHAMPS and accelerometer) and clinical outcomes. When completed, REEF will determine whether exercise-based MI could be utilized as a management strategy to sustain the clinical benefits of exercise for FM.

Validity and reliability of community health activities model program for seniors and short-form international physical activity questionnaire as physical activity assessment tools in patients with fibromyalgia.

PURPOSE: There currently is a paucity of well-validated instruments to quantitatively measure physical activity (PA) levels in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS). This study aims to determine the construct validity and test-retest reliability of two self-report physical activity questionnaires [short-form international physical activity questionnaire (s-IPAQ) and community health activities model program for seniors (CHAMPS)] in a fibromyalgia population. METHODS: Thirty subjects (mean age 49.1 +/- 9.6 years; 90% females) who met the American College of Rheumatology criteria for FMS were invited to participate in the study. Two-week test-retest reliability was evaluated for the CHAMPS and s-IPAQ. Construct validity was evaluated by comparing PA reported from these questionnaires with data obtained from accelerometry (steps/week, counts/week) and the 6-minute walk test (6-MWT). RESULTS: CHAMPS showed greater test-retest reliability (r = 0.58; p < 0.001) compared with s-IPAQ (r = 0.18; p = 0.15). No significant correlations were observed between the self-report PA questionnaires and the 6-MWT or accelerometry data (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In a fibromyalgia population, the s-IPAQ does not appear to be a reliable and valid PA assessment tool. CHAMPS displayed moderate test-retest reliability; however, no associations were found between CHAMPS and objectives measures of PA. In view of the known benefits of exercise in patients with FMS, there is a need to develop new measures or validate other existing well-established PA questionnaires.