Cobalt nanoparticles growth on a block copolymer thin film: a time-resolved GISAXS study.

Cobalt sputter deposition on a nanostructured polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene oxide), P(S-b-EO), template is followed in real time with grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS). The polymer template consists of highly oriented parallel crystalline poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) domains that are sandwiched between two polystyrene (PS) domains. In-situ GISAXS shows that cobalt atoms selectively decorate the PS domains of the microphase-separated polymer film and then aggregate to form surface metal nanopatterns. The polymer template is acting as a directing agent where cobalt metal nanowires are formed. At high metal load, the characteristic selectivity of the template is lost, and a uniform metal layer forms on the polymer surface. During the early stage of cobalt metal deposition, a highly asymmetric nanoparticles agglomeration is dominating structure formation. The cobalt nanoparticles mobility in combination with the high tendency of the nanoparticles to coalescence and to form immobile large-sized particles at the PS domains are discussed as mechanisms of structure formation.

Fabrication and characterization of nanostructured titania films with integrated function from inorganic-organic hybrid materials.

Nanostructured titania films are of growing interest due to their application in future photovoltaic technologies. Therefore, a lot of effort has been put into the controlled fabrication and tailoring of titania nanostructures. The controlled sol-gel synthesis of titania, in particular in combination with block copolymer templates, is very promising because of its high control on the nanostructure, easy application and cheap processing possibilities. This tutorial review gives a short overview of the structural control of titania films gained by using templated sol-gel chemistry and shows how this approach is extended by the addition of further functionality to the films. Different expansions of the sol-gel templating are possible by the fabrication of gradient samples, by the addition of a homopolymer, by the combination with micro-fluidics and also by the application of novel precursors for low-temperature processing. Moreover, hierarchically structured titania films can be fabricated via the subsequent application of several sol-gel steps or via the inclusion of colloidal templates in a one-step process. Integrated function in the block copolymer used in the sol-gel synthesis allows for the fabrication of an integrated blocking layer or an integrated hole-conductor. Both approaches grant a one-step fabrication of two components of a working solar cell, which make them very promising towards a cheap solar cell production route. Looking to the complete solar cell, the top contact is also of great importance as it influences the function of the whole solar cell. Thus, the mechanisms acting in the top contact formation are also reviewed. For all these aspects, characterization techniques that allow for a structural investigation of nanostructures inside the active layers are important. Therefore, the characterization techniques that are used in real space as well as in reciprocal space are explained shortly as well.

Time-resolved ultrathin cobalt film growth on a colloidal polymer template.

Cobalt (Co) sputter deposition onto a colloidal polymer template is investigated using grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). SEM and AFM data picture the sample topography, GISAXS the surface and near-surface film structure. A two-phase model is proposed to describe the time evolution of the Co growth. The presence of the colloidal template results in the correlated deposition of an ultrathin Co film on the sample surface and thus in the creation of Co capped polystyrene (PS) colloids. Well below the percolation threshold, the radial growth is restricted and only height growth is observed.

Thin films of photoactive polymer blends.

The morphology inside photoactive blended films of two conjugated homopolymers poly [(1-methoxy)-4-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-p-phenylene-vinylene] (MEH-PPV) and poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) is investigated. For both homopolymers a linear dependence of the installed film thickness from the concentration of the polymer solution used in spin coating is probed. This dependence allows preparation of an efficient series of blended films with constant thickness and different blending ratios. Information about the lateral structure inside the films is gained from grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering. At the calculated critical blending ratio the smallest lateral separation between adjacent domains is found representing the highest surface contact between both homopolymers in the films. The presence of wetting layers at both interfaces as detected with X-ray reflectivity and atomic force microscopy is promising for photovoltaic applications. UV/Vis spectroscopy complements the structural investigation.

Influence of film thickness on the phase separation mechanism in ultrathin conducting polymer blend films.

The film morphology of thin polymer blend films based on poly[(1-methoxy)-4-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-p-phenylenevinylene] (MEH-PPV) and poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) is probed as a function of film thickness. Blend films are prepared with spin-coating of polymer solutions with different concentrations on top of solid supports. The blending ratio of both conducting polymers is kept constant. The film and surface morphology is probed with grazing incidence ultrasmall-angle X-ray scattering (GIUSAXS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). A linear dependence between the film thickness and the averaged phase separation is found. In addition, X-ray reflectivity measurements show an enrichment of PVK at the substrate interface. UV/vis spectroscopy measurements indicate a linearly increasing amount of both homopolymers in the blend films for increasing film thicknesses. The generalized knowledge about the influence of the film thickness on the phase separation behavior in conducting polymer blend films is finally used to describe the phase separation formation during the spin-coating process, and the results are discussed in the framework of an adapted Flory-Huggins theory for rodlike polymers.

Growth and morphology of sputtered aluminum thin films on P3HT surfaces.

Growth and morphology of an aluminum (Al) contact on a poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) thin film are investigated with X-ray methods and related to the interactions at the Al:P3HT interface. Grazing incidence small-angle scattering (GISAXS) is applied in situ during Al sputter deposition to monitor the growth of the layer. A growth mode is found, in which the polymer surface is wetted and rapidly covered with a continuous layer. This growth type results in a homogeneous film without voids and is explained by the strong chemical interaction between Al and P3HT, which suppresses the formation of three-dimensional cluster structures. A corresponding three stage growth model (surface bonding, agglomeration, and layer growth) is derived. X-ray reflectivity shows the penetration of Al atoms into the P3HT film during deposition and the presence of a 2 nm thick intermixing layer at the Al:P3HT interface.

Sponge-like structures for application in photovoltaics.

Large surface areas at an interface between two different materials are desired in many research fields where the interaction between these materials significantly affects the performance of the physical system. This behaviour is illustrated on sponge-like structures, which assign for such a high surface area, and demonstrate the development from bulk material to thin films and a variety of applications. The focus is on sponge-like nanostructures consisting of a network of aggregated titania nanoparticles applied in hybrid structures for photovoltaics. Examples based on a sol-gel process for the preparation of titania nanostructures in thin films, mimicking the sponge morphology, are shown. In general, titania films are widely used in photovoltaics, contributing to a large surface area available for interfacial reactions, e.g. charge carrier transfer routes. Interpenetrating networks with dimensions matching exciton diffusion lengths in the polymer component of a hybrid organic-inorganic photovoltaic structure are highly desirable. To characterize the fabricated morphology, atomic force microscopy and field-emission scanning electron microscopy are employed in real space. The advanced scattering technique of grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering complements the characterization in reciprocal space. From the obtained results, the sponge-like morphology is verified, a physical description of the morphology with statistical relevance is constructed and the successful complete filling of the network is shown. According to this description, the presented sponge-like titania nanostructures are well suited for use in hybrid organic-inorganic solar cells.

In situ GISAXS study of gold film growth on conducting polymer films.

The growth of a thin gold film on a conducting polymer surface from nucleation to formation of a continuous layer with a thickness of several nanometers is investigated in situ with grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS). Time resolution is achieved by performing the experiment in cycles of gold deposition on poly(N-vinylcarbazole) (PVK) and subsequently recording the GISAXS data. The 2D GISAXS patterns are simulated, and morphological parameters of the gold film on PVK such as the cluster size, shape, and correlation distance are extracted. For the quantitative description of the cluster size evolution, scaling laws are applied. The time evolution of the cluster morphology is explained with a growth model, suggesting a cluster growth proceeding in four steps, each dominated by a characteristic kinetic process: nucleation, lateral growth, coarsening, and vertical growth. A very limited amount of 6.5 wt % gold is observed to be incorporated inside a 1.2-nm-thick enrichment layer in the PVK film.

Hierarchically structured titania films prepared by polymer/colloidal templating.

Hierarchically structured titania films for application in hybrid solar cells are prepared by combining microsphere templating and sol-gel chemistry with an amphiphilic diblock copolymer as a structure-directing agent. The films have a functional structure on three size scales: (1) on the micrometer scale a holelike structure for reduction of light reflection, (2) on an intermediate scale macropores for surface roughening and improved infiltration of a hole transport material, and (3) on a nanometer scale a mesoporous structure for charge generation. Poly(dimethyl siloxane)-block-methyl methacrylate poly(ethylene oxide) (PDMS-b-MA(PEO)) is used as a structure-directing agent for the preparation of the mesopore structure, and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) microspheres act as a template for the micrometer-scale structure. The structure on all levels is modified by the method of polymer extraction as well as by the addition of PMMA particles to the sol-gel solution. Calcination results in structures with increased size and a higher degree of order than extraction with acetic acid. With addition of PMMA a microstructure is created and the size of the mesopores is reduced. Already moderate microstructuring results in a strong decrease in film reflectivity; a minimum reflectivity value of less than 0.1 is obtained by acetic acid treatment and subsequent calcination.