Hypoxia alters the expression of inhibitor of apoptosis proteins after brain trauma in the mouse.

Hypoxia worsens brain injury following trauma, but the mechanisms remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and secondary hypoxia (9% oxygen) on apoptosis-related protein expression, cell death, and behavior. Using a murine weight-drop model, TBI led to an early (6 h) increase followed by a later (24 h) decrease in neuronal apoptosis inhibitor protein (NAIP) expression in the olfactory and motor cortex; in contrast, TBI led to a sustained (6 h to 7 days) increase in NAIP in the striatum. The peak increase in the expression of NAIP (6-12 h) following TBI alone was delayed (1-7 days) when hypoxia was added to TBI. Hypoxia following TBI further depleted other apoptosis inhibitor proteins (IAPs) and activated caspases, as well as increased contusion size and worsened cell death. Hypoxia added to TBI also increased motor and feeding activity on days 2 and 4 compared to TBI alone. Hypoxia without TBI had no effect on the expression of IAPs or cell death. These findings show that IAPs have a potential role in the increased vulnerability of brain cells to hypoxia following TBI, and have implications for configuring future therapies for TBI.

A differential response to newt regeneration extract by C2C12 and primary mammalian muscle cells.

BACKGROUND: Dedifferentiation, a process whereby differentiated cells lose their specialized characteristics and revert to a less differentiated state, plays a key role in the regeneration process in urodele amphibians such as the red spotted newt, Notophthalmus viridescens. Dedifferentiation of fully mature tissues is generally absent in mammalian cells. Previous studies have shown that mouse C2C12 multinucleated myotubes treated with extract derived from regenerating newt forelimbs can re-enter the cell cycle, fragment into mononucleated cells, and proliferate. However, this response has been difficult to replicate. METHODS: We isolated extract from early newt forelimb regenerates and assessed its effects on differentiation of proliferating primary and C2C12 myoblasts. We also treated fully differentiated primary and C2C12 myotube cultures with extract and assessed cell cycle re-entry and myotube fragmentation. RESULTS: We have confirmed the results obtained in C2C12 cells and expanded these studies to also examine the effects of newt regeneration extracts on primary muscle cells. Newt extract can block differentiation of both C2C12 and primary myoblasts. Once differentiation is induced, treatment with newt extract causes cell cycle re-entry and fragmentation of C2C12 myotubes. Downregulation of p21 and muscle-specific markers is also induced. Primary myotubes also fragment in response to extract treatment, and the fragmented cells remain viable for long periods of time in culture. However, unlike C2C12 cells, primary muscle cells do not re-enter the cell cycle in response to treatment with newt extracts. CONCLUSIONS: Dedifferentiation of fully mature muscle occurs during regeneration in the newt forelimb to contribute cells to the regeneration process. Our study shows that extracts derived from regenerating newt forelimbs can induce dedifferentiation, cell cycle re-entry, and fragmentation of mouse C2C12 cells but can only induce fragmentation in primary muscle cells.

Distinct roles for Ste20-like kinase SLK in muscle function and regeneration.

BACKGROUND: Cell growth and terminal differentiation are controlled by complex signaling systems that regulate the tissue-specific expression of genes controlling cell fate and morphogenesis. We have previously reported that the Ste20-like kinase SLK is expressed in muscle tissue and is required for cell motility. However, the specific function of SLK in muscle tissue is still poorly understood. METHODS: To gain further insights into the role of SLK in differentiated muscles, we expressed a kinase-inactive SLK from the human skeletal muscle actin promoter. Transgenic muscles were surveyed for potential defects. Standard histological procedures and cardiotoxin-induced regeneration assays we used to investigate the role of SLK in myogenesis and muscle repair. RESULTS: High levels of kinase-inactive SLK in muscle tissue produced an overall decrease in SLK activity in muscle tissue, resulting in altered muscle organization, reduced litter sizes, and reduced breeding capacity. The transgenic mice did not show any differences in fiber-type distribution but displayed enhanced regeneration capacity in vivo and more robust differentiation in vitro. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that SLK activity is required for optimal muscle development in the embryo and muscle physiology in the adult. However, reduced kinase activity during muscle repair enhances regeneration and differentiation. Together, these results suggest complex and distinct roles for SLK in muscle development and function.