Examining variability in Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Intervention strategy use in caregivers of children with autism spectrum disorders.

BACKGROUND: Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions (NDBIs) for young children with autism spectrum disorder commonly involve caregiver-mediated approaches. However, to date, there is limited research on how caregivers' skills change, and, in turn, impact child outcomes. METHODS: We evaluated the NDBI strategy use of 191 caregivers prior to participation in NDBIs (or control groups) across multiple randomized controlled trials, using the Measure of NDBI Strategy Implementation, Caregiver Change (MONSI-CC). Clustering analyses were used to examine caregiver variability in NDBI strategy use at intervention entry. Generalized Linear Mixed Models were used to examine changes in caregiver strategy use over the course of intervention and its impact on changes in children's social communication. RESULTS: Using clustering analysis, we found that caregivers' baseline skills fit four profiles: limited, emerging, variable, and consistent/high, with few demographic factors distinguishing these groups. Caregivers starting with limited or emerging skills improved in their strategy use with intervention. Caregivers starting with more skills (consistent/high or variable) maintained higher skills over intervention. Children of caregivers in these groups who received target NDBIs improved in their social communication skills. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggested that caregiver skills improve through participation in NDBIs and may directly contribute to their children's outcomes, although more research on mediating factors is needed. Individualized approaches for caregivers and their children starting with differing skill profiles at intervention entry may be warranted.

Effect of Illite Treatment on Quality Characteristics and Antioxidant Activity of Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) Sprouts.

Microgreens have recently gained popularity owing to their reliable economic and nutritional value. This study aimed to increase the quality of microgreen broccoli via treatment with different concentrations (1%, IPB-1; 3%, IPB-3; 5%, IPB-5; or 7%, IPB-7 w/v) of illite-a natural mineral powder. The results showed that the illite treatments considerably increased the content of mineral elements, such as Ca, P, and K; of vitamin C; and of free amino acids; and also increased the total weight of the broccoli sprouts. The content of sulforaphane, a bioactive compound, also increased by up to 47% with illite treatment, with the highest increase being in the IPB-5 group. However, several of the parameters were lower in the IPB-7 group. Aromatic compounds were categorized by functional groups such as hydrocarbons which numbered 36, 30, 34, 28, and 30 in the control, IPB-1, IPB-3, IPB-5, and IPB-7 groups, respectively. We found 16, 15, 15, 13, and 14 sulfides, including dimethyl sulfide, in the control, IPB-1, IPB-3, IPB-5, and IPB-7 groups, respectively. Additionally, aldehydes, comprising seven compounds, were detected in the IPB-1, IPB-3, IPB-5, and IPB-7 groups. Illite treatment significantly increased the activities of antioxidants such as DPPH and the polyphenol content of the microgreens. These results indicate a potential role for appropriate illite doses in microgreen treatment to address multinutrient deficiencies and to increase the quality of microgreen vegetables.

Comparison of treatment effects after total mandibular arch distalization with miniscrews vs ramal plates in patients with Class III malocclusion.

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to compare treatment effects after total mandibular arch distalization with buccal interradicular miniscrews vs ramal plates in patients with Class III malocclusion. METHODS: The sample consisted of 40 patients with Class III malocclusion; 20 were treated with distalization via buccal miniscrews (age, 25.8 ± 7.9 years), whereas 20 were treated with ramal plates (age, 26.4 ± 6.1 years). Twenty-three linear and angular measurements were analyzed on pretreatment and posttreatment lateral cephalograms. The changes in each group and differences in treatment effects between the 2 groups were evaluated. RESULTS: The mean amount of distalization at the crown and root levels of the mandibular first molars and the amount of distal tipping was 1.8 mm, 0.6 mm, and 5.4° in the buccal miniscrew group vs 3.6 mm, 2.0 mm, and 6.8° in the ramal plate group, respectively. In addition, 2.2° of counterclockwise rotation of the occlusal plane was observed in the buccal miniscrew group after 1.3 mm of molar intrusion (P <0.001). The distal movement of the lower lip was 0.6 mm in the buccal miniscrew group vs 2.3 mm in the ramal plate group. CONCLUSIONS: The buccal miniscrew group showed more molar intrusion and counterclockwise rotation of the occlusal plane than in the ramal plate group. The ramal plate produced more distalization of the mandibular dentition with clockwise rotation of the mandible. Therefore, these results can be useful when selecting the type of temporary skeletal anchorage devices to treat patients with Class III malocclusion, depending on their vertical pattern.

Benefits of Virtual Reality Program and Motor Imagery Training on Balance and Fall Efficacy in Isolated Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Background and Objectives: for isolated older adults, alternative training indoors to maintain balance is essential; however, related studies are lacking. To improve the balance of isolated older adults and reduce their fear of falling, we aimed to examine the balance−keeping effect of a virtual reality (VR) program and motor imagery training (MIT) and propose training that could improve physical activity among older adults. Methods: a total of 34 older adults admitted to a convalescent hospital were assessed. VR (n = 12) and MIT (n = 10) groups completed their assigned intervention in six weeks, whereas the control group (CG) (n = 12) did not. The follow−up was performed after two weeks. Results: in group × time interactions, body center movement area, open and closed eyes balance scores, and fall efficacy were significantly different (p < 0.05). In contrast with the VR group, the MIT group did not show a significant difference in the open or closed eyes balance scores depending on the period. However, there was a significant difference between the MIT group and CG in the open eyes balance score post-test (d = 1.13, 95% confidence interval, 0.40−12.33). Conclusions: we propose VR and MIT as training methods to prevent physical weakness in isolated older adults.

Effect of 9% Hydrofluoric Acid Gel Hot-Etching Surface Treatment on Shear Bond Strength of Resin Cements to Zirconia Ceramics.

Background and Objectives: There is no consensus regarding the surface treatment method for achieving optimal bonding strength between zirconia and resin cements. We evaluated the effect of hot-etching with 9% hydrofluoric acid (HF) gel using the Zirconia Etchant Cloud System on zirconia surfaces and the consequent shear bond strength (SBS) of different resin cements to such surface-treated zirconia ceramics. Materials and Methods: Forty-five zirconia specimens were randomly assigned to surface-treatment groups (n = 15/group): no treatment (control, CT); sandblasting with 110-µm Al2O3 at an air pressure of 1 bar for 10 s (SB); hot-etching with 9% HF gel (HE). Post-treatment, specimens were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and surface roughness (SR) analysis. After treatment, self-adhesive resin cements (Maxcem Elite, MAZIC Cem, RelyX U200, 3M ESPE: Maplewood, MN, USA) were bonded to zirconia specimens, which were stored in distilled water at 37 °C for 24 h. All specimens were then subjected to SBS testing, using a universal testing machine, until failure. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and Tukey's post hoc test (α = 0.05). Results: In the SEM images, roughness was greater in SB than in HE specimens. Ra and Rt values were highest in SB, followed by HE, and CT specimens. HE specimens showed significantly higher SBS values than CT or SB specimens (p < 0.05). MAZIC Cem cement, with 10-methacryloyloxydcyl dihydrogen phosphate yielded the highest SBS values. Conclusions: Hot-etching with 9% HF gel in a safe shell formed uniformly small, defined holes on the zirconia surface and achieved significantly higher SBS values than sandblasting (p < 0.05). Zirconia prostheses can be bonded micromechanically with resin cement, without the deterioration of properties due to t-m transformation, using chemical acid etching with the Zirconia Etchant Cloud System.

Accuracy of intraoral scan images in full arch with orthodontic brackets: a retrospective in vivo study.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this retrospective study was to evaluate the accuracy of intraoral scan (IOS) images in the maxillary and mandibular arches with orthodontic brackets. MATERIAL AND METHODS: From digital impressions of 140 patients who underwent orthodontic treatment, consecutive IOS images were selected based on standardized inclusion criteria: Two pre-orthodontic IOS images (IOS1 and IOS2) of permanent dentition with fully erupted second molars and IOS images obtained immediately after orthodontic bracket bonding (IOSb). Superimpositions were performed to evaluate the reproducibility of repeated IOS images. Accuracy of IOSb images was analyzed by comparing the average surface errors between IOS1c and IOS2c images, which were IOS images cut based on the same region of the interest as between IOS1 and IOSb images. RESULTS: A total of 84 IOS images was analyzed. The average surface errors between IOS1 and IOS2 images were 57 ± 8 µm and 59 ± 14 µm in the maxillary and mandibular arch, respectively, and their reliability was almost perfect. The average errors between IOSb and IOS1c images exhibited an increase, which measured 97 ± 28 µm in the maxillary arch and 95 ± 29 µm in the mandibular arch. These surface deviations between IOSb and IOS1c images were significantly larger in each region as well as entire dentition (P < 0.001) compared to those between IOS1c and IOS2c images. CONCLUSIONS: The average surface errors of the scans with brackets showed increased values compared with those without brackets. This suggests that orthodontic brackets could affect the trueness of intraoral scan images. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: It is necessary for clinicians to consider the effect of brackets on digital impression when using IOS images in orthodontic patients.

Soft Tissue Changes After Clockwise Rotation of Maxillo-Mandibular Complex in Class III Patients: Three-Dimensional Stereophotogrammetric Evaluation.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the linear, angular, and volumetric changes of soft tissue after clockwise repositioning of the maxillo-mandibular complex in skeletal class III patients using three-dimensional (3D) stereophotogrammetry and to determine the correlation between changes in the skeletal and soft tissue variables. METHODS: This study included 18 skeletal class III patients who underwent two-jaw surgery; superior impaction and clockwise rotational movement of the maxilla with the rotation center at upper incisors, and setback of the mandible. Lateral cephalograms and 3D photographs taken before and 6 months after surgery were compared. RESULTS: After maxillary impaction of anteriorly 1.7 mm and posteriorly 3.1 mm, and mandibular setback of 8.7 mm, the volume of lower lip and chin region decreased significantly by 33.6 cm3 (13% net change, P < 0.001), while paranasal and upper lip region volume increased by 3.2 cm3 (2%) and 7.2 cm3 (4%), respectively. CONCLUSION: The clockwise rotation of maxillo-mandibular complex in class III patients significantly reduced lower lip and chin volume with minimal increase in paranasal and upper lip volumes. 3D stereophotogrammetry can provide quantitative evaluation of facial soft tissue volumetric changes.

2-IPMA Ameliorates PM2.5-Induced Inflammation by Promoting Primary Ciliogenesis in RPE Cells.

Primary cilia mediate the interactions between cells and external stresses. Thus, dysregulation of primary cilia is implicated in various ciliopathies, e.g., degeneration of the retina caused by dysregulation of the photoreceptor primary cilium. Particulate matter (PM) can cause epithelium injury and endothelial dysfunction by increasing oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Previously, we showed that PM disrupts the formation of primary cilia in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells. In the present study, we identified 2-isopropylmalic acid (2-IPMA) as a novel inducer of primary ciliogenesis from a metabolite library screening. Both ciliated cells and primary cilium length were increased in 2-IPMA-treated RPE cells. Notably, 2-IPMA strongly promoted primary ciliogenesis and restored PM2.5-induced dysgenesis of primary cilia in RPE cells. Both excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and activation of a stress kinase, JNK, by PM2.5 were reduced by 2-IPMA. Moreover, 2-IPMA inhibited proinflammatory cytokine production, i.e., IL-6 and TNF-α, induced by PM2.5 in RPE cells. Taken together, our data suggest that 2-IPMA ameliorates PM2.5-induced inflammation by promoting primary ciliogenesis in RPE cells.

Neck Stabilization Exercises Enhance Respiratory Function after Stroke: Respiratory Function Index Change Trajectory Analyzed Using a Hierarchical Linear Model.

Background and Objectives: This study aimed to assess the effect of neck stabilization exercise on respiratory function in stroke patients through longitudinal observation and determine whether there is a difference in its effect based on the side of paralysis in the patients. It is difficult to observe the amount of change observed in individuals and groups as most intergroup comparison studies only use mean values. To address these shortcomings, this study adopted a hierarchical linear model (HLM) in our trajectory analysis. Materials and Methods: We conducted neck stabilization training three times a week for four weeks in a single group of 21 stroke patients. To evaluate respiratory function, their forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1), forced expiration ratio (FEV1/FVC), and peak cough flow (PCF) were measured. Data analysis was performed using HLM 8.0. Results: A significant increase was found in the respiratory function after neck stabilization training (p < 0.05). While neck stabilization training overall was longitudinally effective, the growth rate of respiratory function in left-sided paralytic patients was less than the whole group value. Conversely, the growth rate of respiratory function in right-sided paralytic patients was greater than the whole group value. Conclusions: This study demonstrated that neck stabilization training is longitudinally effective in improving respiratory function in stroke patients. Additionally, the growth rate of respiratory function was greater in patients with right side paralysis than in patients with left side paralysis.

Improving speaker diarization for naturalistic child-adult conversational interactions using contextual information.

While deep learning has driven recent improvements in audio speaker diarization, it often faces performance issues in challenging interaction scenarios and varied acoustic settings such as between a child and adult (caregiver/examiner). In this work, the role of contextual factors that affect diarization performance in such interactions is analyzed. Factors that affect each type of diarization error are identified. Furthermore, a DNN is trained on diarization outputs in conjunction with the factors to improve diarization performance. The results demonstrate the usefulness of incorporating context in improving diarization performance of child-adult interactions in clinical settings.

Language characterization in 16p11.2 deletion and duplication syndromes.

Expressive language impairment is one of the most frequently associated clinical features of 16p11.2 copy number variations (CNV). However, our understanding of the language profiles of individuals with 16p11.2 CNVs is still limited. This study builds upon previous work in the Simons Variation in Individuals Project (VIP, now known as Simons Searchlight), to characterize language abilities in 16p11.2 deletion and duplication carriers using comprehensive assessments. Participants included 110 clinically ascertained children and family members (i.e., siblings and cousins) with 16p11.2 BP4-BP5 deletion and 58 with 16p11.2 BP4-BP5 duplication between the ages of 2-23 years, most of whom were verbal. Regression analyses were performed to quantify variation in language abilities in the presence of the 16p11.2 deletion and duplication, both with and without autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and cognitive deficit. Difficulties in pragmatic skills were equally prevalent in verbal individuals in both deletion and duplication groups. NVIQ had moderate quantifiable effects on language scores in syntax and semantics/pragmatics (a decrease of less than 1 SD) for both groups. Overall, language impairments persisted even after controlling for ASD diagnosis and cognitive deficit. Language impairment is one of the core clinical features of individuals with 16p11.2 CNVs even in the absence of ASD and cognitive deficit. Results highlight the need for more comprehensive and rigorous assessment of language impairments to maximize outcomes in carriers of 16p11.2 CNVs.

Plasmid analysis of Escherichia coli isolates from South Korea co-producing NDM-5 and OXA-181 carbapenemases.

Recently, Escherichia coli isolates co-producing New Delhi metallo-ß-lactamase (NDM)-5 and oxacillinase (OXA)-181 were identified in a tertiary-care hospital of South Korea. Isolate CC1702-1 was collected from urine in January 2017 and isolate CC1706-1 was recovered from a transtracheal aspirate of a hospitalized patient in May 2017. Carbapenemase genes were identified by multiplex PCR and sequencing, and whole genome sequencing was performed subsequently using the PacBio RSII system. Both E. coli isolates belonged to the same clone (ST410) and were resistant to all ß-lactams including carbapenems. We obtained whole plasmid sequences of the isolates: pCC1702-NDM-5 from CC1702-1 and pCC1706-NDM-5 and pCC1706-OXA-181 from CC1706-1. The two E. coli isolates belonged to the same clone (ST410) and they were completely resistant to all ß-lactams, as well as carbapenems. Two blaNDM-5-harboring plasmids belonged to the same incompatibility group, IncFIA/B, and consisted of 79,613 bp and 111,890 bp with 87 and 130 coding sequences, respectively. The genetic structures of the two blaNDM-5-bearing plasmids, which were distinct from the blaNDM-5-bearing plasmids from the Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates previously transmitted from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to South Korea, differed from each other. While pCC1702-NDM-5 showed high degree of identity with the plasmid from a multidrug-resistant isolate of Citrobacter fruendii P5571 found in China, pCC1706-NDM-5 was very similar to the plasmid from a multidrug-resistant isolate of E. coli AMA1176 found in Denmark. pCC1706-OXA-181, which was a 51 kb, self-transmissible IncX3 plasmid, was identical to the E. coli plasmids pAMA1167-OXA-181 from Denmark and pOXA-181-WCHEC14828 from China. Plasmids harboring blaNDM-5 in E. coli isolates might not be transferred from K. pneumoniae isolates co-producing NDM-5 and OXA-181. They probably originated from multiple sources.

Genome characterization of an extensively drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 11A strain.

In this study, the whole genome sequences of two Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates from South Korea were determined and compared. They were found to be the same serotype (11 A) and multilocus sequence typing analysis showed that they are single-locus variants (SLVs; ST8279 and ST166) of each other, differing at one allele (aroE). However, the ST8279 strain is extensively drug-resistant (XDR) whereas the ST166 strain is not. The genome of the XDR strain is very similar in structure to that of two previously reported genomes, AP200 (11 A:ST62) and 70585 (5:ST5803); however, some regions were inverted and there were some exogenous regions in the ST8279 strain. It was found that 6,502 single nucleotide polymorphisms are dispersed across the genome between the two serotype 11 A ST8279 and ST166 strains. Many of them are located in genes associated with antibiotic resistance. In addition, many amino acid differences were also identified in genes involved in DNA repair (mutL, uvrA and uvrC) and recombination (recU, recR and recA). On the basis of these results, it was inferred that the XDR strain did not evolve from its SLV via a single recombination event involving a large portion of the genome including the aroE gene. Rather, the strain likely evolved through many point mutations and recombination events involving small portions of the genome.

Factors Related to Relapse After Mandibular Setback Surgery With Minimal Presurgical Orthodontics.

PURPOSE: The aims of this study were to compare the presurgical conditions, surgical changes, and postsurgical changes in patients with skeletal Class III malocclusion with different degrees of horizontal relapse after mandibular setback surgery (MS) with minimal presurgical orthodontics (MPO) and to identify the factors contributing to this relapse. MATERIALS AND METHODS: For this retrospective study, 33 consecutive patients who underwent MS-MPO were selected. Lateral cephalograms were taken preoperatively (T0), 1 month after surgery (T1), and at orthodontic debonding (T2). Patients were divided into low relapse (LR; n = 18; relapse, <1 mm) and high relapse (HR; n = 15; relapse, >2 mm) groups based on the cephalometric distance of mandibular horizontal relapse. Paired t test, independent t test, and Pearson correlation analysis were used to evaluate surgical (T0 to T1) and postsurgical (T1 to T2) changes in the skeletodental variables and to explore the relation between surgical changes and horizontal relapse. RESULTS: Compared with the LR group, the HR group exhibited more upward movement with counterclockwise rotation of the mandible from T1 to T2. The HR group presented at T0 with a more prognathic mandible, greater vertical facial height, and a positive overbite. In addition, the HR group presented more posterior movement with clockwise rotation of the mandible, increased overjet, and decreased overbite from T0 to T1. Horizontal relapse of the mandible was positively correlated with the amount of setback and clockwise rotation of the mandible and the change in overjet and was negatively correlated with the change in overbite. CONCLUSIONS: Mandibular instability was related to the extent of setback and clockwise rotation of the mandible, decreased overbite, and increased overjet during MS-MPO.

Rapid emergence and mechanisms of resistance by U87 glioblastoma cells to doxorubicin in an in vitro tumor microfluidic ecology.

In vitro prediction of the probable rapid emergence of resistance to a drug in tumors could act to winnow out potential candidates for further costly development. We have developed a microfluidic device consisting of ∼500 hexagonal microcompartments that provides a complex ecology with wide ranges of drug and nutrient gradients and local populations. This ecology of a fragmented metapopulation induced the drug resistance in stage IV U87 glioblastoma cells to doxorubicin in 7 d. Exome and transcriptome sequencing of the resistant cells identified mutations and differentially expressed genes. Gene ontology and pathway analyses of the genes identified showed that they were functionally relevant to the established mechanisms of doxorubicin action. Specifically, we identified (i) a frame-shift insertion in the filamin-A gene, which regulates the influx and efflux of topoisomerase II poisons; (ii) the overexpression of aldo-keto reductase enzymes, which convert doxorubicin into doxorubicinol; and (iii) activation of NF-κB via alterations in the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor signaling pathway from mutations in three genes (CARD6, NSD1, and NLRP13) and the overexpression of inflammatory cytokines. Functional experiments support the in silico analyses and, together, demonstrate the effects of these genetic changes. Our findings suggest that, given the rapid evolution of resistance and the focused response, this technology could act as a rapid screening modality for genetic aberrations leading to resistance to chemotherapy as well as counter selection of drugs unlikely to be successful ultimately.

Semiautomated fabrication of a custom orbital prosthesis with 3-dimensional printing technology.

The fabrication of orbital prostheses is complex and time-consuming. A virtual orbital prosthesis and its negative mold are presented by using a 3D printer. This method avoids damage to the soft tissue or patient discomfort and reduces the time and skill required to fabricate a custom orbital prosthesis.

Stimulus processing and error monitoring in more-able kindergarteners with autism spectrum disorder: a short review and a preliminary Event-Related Potentials study.

Deficits in executive functions (EF) in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have been identified. However, there is limited evidence about patterns of deficits in EF-related skills, especially at the neurobiological level, in young children with ASD and little is known about how these skills are related to other domains of functioning and symptom severity. In this study, we provide a focused review of EF-related Event-Related Potentials (ERP) studies in children with ASD, accompanied by preliminary data for neurophysiological correlates of EF on a child-friendly Go/No-go task. We focus our preliminary investigation on ERPs associated with stimulus processing (N2, P3) and error monitoring [error/correct-related negativity (ERN, CRN), error positivity (Pe)] in 5-year-old kindergarteners with ASD and typical controls matched on age, gender and task accuracy. Children with ASD showed significantly greater amplitudes of ERN/CRN compared to matched controls, suggesting heightened response monitoring. The ASD group also showed less distinct inhibitory P3 compared to the TD group, potentially suggesting atypical stimulus processing. In children with ASD, higher autism symptom severity was correlated with larger P3. Better behavioral performance on an EF-related task was correlated with smaller CRN. Our study is the first investigation to demonstrate the presence of N2, P3, ERN/CRN and Pe in kindergartners with ASD. The potential links between ERP patterns and behavioral and clinical features in more-able children with ASD highlight the need for further exploration into the functional mechanisms of these atypical neural activities and for more focused behavioral interventions targeting cognitive control and response monitoring.

Emergence of an extensively drug-resistant (XDR) Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 15A by capsular switching.

Recently, we have identified an extensively drug-resistant (XDR) Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 15A isolate from a patient with bacterial meningitis. It belonged to sequence type 8279 (ST8279), a clone identified as XDR serotype 11A isolated in South Korea. We obtained and compared the genome sequences of an XDR 15A and an XDR 11A isolate. The genomes of two XDR isolates were highly identical, except for the capsular polysaccharide (cps) locus and another small region. Capsular switching from 11A to 15A may have occurred via recombination of the cps locus. The emergence of a new XDR clone via capsular switching would be a great concern for public health and in clinical settings.

Longitudinal follow-up of academic achievement in children with autism from age 2 to 18.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined early predictors of and changes in school-age academic achievement and class placement in children referred for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) at age 2. METHOD: Of 111 ASD referrals, 74 were diagnosed with ASD at age 18. Regression analyses were performed to identify age 3 predictors of achievement in arithmetic, passage comprehension, word reading, and spelling at ages 9 and 18. Linear Mixed Models were used to examine predictors of academic growth between ages 9 and 18. RESULTS: Academic skills varied widely at 9 and 18, but were mostly commensurate with or higher than expected given cognitive levels. However, 22% (age 9) and 32% (age 18) of children with average/above average IQ showed below/low average achievement in at least one academic domain. Children who remained in general education/inclusion classrooms had higher achievement than those who moved to special education classrooms. Stronger cognitive skills at age 3 and 9 predicted better academic achievement and faster academic growth from age 9 to 18. Parent participation in intervention by age 3 predicted better achievement at age 9 and 18. CONCLUSIONS: Many children with ASD achieve basic academic skills commensurate with or higher than their cognitive ability. However, more rigorous screening for learning difficulties may be important for those with average cognitive skills because a significant minority show relative academic delays. Interventions targeting cognitive skills and parent participation in early treatment may have cascading effects on long-term academic development.