Coenzyme A-mediated degradation of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 promotes cardiac metabolic flexibility after high-fat feeding in mice.

Cardiac energy is produced primarily by oxidation of fatty acids and glucose, with the relative contributions of each nutrient being sensitive to changes in substrate availability and energetic demand. A major contributor to cardiac metabolic flexibility is pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), which converts glucose-derived pyruvate to acetyl-CoA within the mitochondria. PDH is inhibited by phosphorylation dependent on the competing activities of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDK1-4) and phosphatases (PDP1-2). A single high-fat meal increases cardiac PDK4 content and subsequently inhibits PDH activity, reducing pyruvate utilization when abundant fatty acids are available. In this study, we demonstrate that diet-induced increases in PDK4 are reversible and characterize a novel pathway that regulates PDK4 degradation in response to the cardiac metabolic environment. We found that PDK4 degradation is promoted by CoA (CoASH), the levels of which declined in mice fed a high-fat diet and normalized following transition to a control diet. We conclude that CoASH functions as a metabolic sensor linking the rate of PDK4 degradation to fatty acid availability in the heart. However, prolonged high-fat feeding followed by return to a low-fat diet resulted in persistent in vitro sensitivity of PDH to fatty acid-induced inhibition despite reductions in PDK4 content. Moreover, increases in the levels of proteins responsible for ß-oxidation and rates of palmitate oxidation by isolated cardiac mitochondria following long-term consumption of high dietary fat persisted after transition to the control diet. We propose that these changes prime PDH for inhibition upon reintroduction of fatty acids.

Decreased Mitochondrial Pyruvate Transport Activity in the Diabetic Heart: ROLE OF MITOCHONDRIAL PYRUVATE CARRIER 2 (MPC2) ACETYLATION.

Alterations in mitochondrial function contribute to diabetic cardiomyopathy. We have previously shown that heart mitochondrial proteins are hyperacetylated in OVE26 mice, a transgenic model of type 1 diabetes. However, the universality of this modification and its functional consequences are not well established. In this study, we demonstrate that Akita type 1 diabetic mice exhibit hyperacetylation. Functionally, isolated Akita heart mitochondria have significantly impaired maximal (state 3) respiration with physiological pyruvate (0.1 mm) but not with 1.0 mm pyruvate. In contrast, pyruvate dehydrogenase activity is significantly decreased regardless of the pyruvate concentration. We found that there is a 70% decrease in the rate of pyruvate transport in Akita heart mitochondria but no decrease in the mitochondrial pyruvate carriers 1 and 2 (MPC1 and MPC2). The potential role of hyperacetylation in mediating this impaired pyruvate uptake was examined. The treatment of control mitochondria with the acetylating agent acetic anhydride inhibits pyruvate uptake and pyruvate-supported respiration in a similar manner to the pyruvate transport inhibitor α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate. A mass spectrometry selective reactive monitoring assay was developed and used to determine that acetylation of lysines 19 and 26 of MPC2 is enhanced in Akita heart mitochondria. Expression of a double acetylation mimic of MPC2 (K19Q/K26Q) in H9c2 cells was sufficient to decrease the maximal cellular oxygen consumption rate. This study supports the conclusion that deficient pyruvate transport activity, mediated in part by acetylation of MPC2, is a contributor to metabolic inflexibility in the diabetic heart.

Lysine Acetylation Activates Mitochondrial Aconitase in the Heart.

High-throughput proteomics studies have identified several thousand acetylation sites on more than 1000 proteins. Mitochondrial aconitase, the Krebs cycle enzyme that converts citrate to isocitrate, has been identified in many of these reports. Acetylated mitochondrial aconitase has also been identified as a target for sirtuin 3 (SIRT3)-catalyzed deacetylation. However, the functional significance of mitochondrial aconitase acetylation has not been determined. Using in vitro strategies, mass spectrometric analyses, and an in vivo mouse model of obesity, we found a significant acetylation-dependent activation of aconitase. Isolated heart mitochondria subjected to in vitro chemical acetylation with either acetic anhydride or acetyl-coenzyme A resulted in increased aconitase activity that was reversed with SIRT3 treatment. Quantitative mass spectrometry was used to measure acetylation at 21 lysine residues and revealed significant increases with both in vitro treatments. A high-fat diet (60% of kilocalories from fat) was used as an in vivo model and also showed significantly increased mitochondrial aconitase activity without changes in protein level. The high-fat diet also produced an increased level of aconitase acetylation at multiple sites as measured by the quantitative mass spectrometry assays. Treatment of isolated mitochondria from these mice with SIRT3 abolished the high-fat diet-induced activation of aconitase and reduced acetylation. Finally, kinetic analyses found that the increase in activity was a result of increased maximal velocity, and molecular modeling suggests the potential for acetylation at K144 to perturb the tertiary structure of the enzyme. The results of this study reveal a novel activation of mitochondrial aconitase by acetylation.

The loss of cardiac SIRT3 decreases metabolic flexibility and proteostasis in an age-dependent manner.

SIRT3 is a longevity factor that acts as the primary deacetylase in mitochondria. Although ubiquitously expressed, previous global SIRT3 knockout studies have shown primarily a cardiac-specific phenotype. Here, we sought to determine how specifically knocking out SIRT3 in cardiomyocytes (SIRTcKO mice) temporally affects cardiac function and metabolism. Mice displayed an age-dependent increase in cardiac pathology, with 10-month-old mice exhibiting significant loss of systolic function, hypertrophy, and fibrosis. While mitochondrial function was maintained at 10 months, proteomics and metabolic phenotyping indicated SIRT3 hearts had increased reliance on glucose as an energy substrate. Additionally, there was a significant increase in branched-chain amino acids in SIRT3cKO hearts without concurrent increases in mTOR activity. Heavy water labeling experiments demonstrated that, by 3 months of age, there was an increase in protein synthesis that promoted hypertrophic growth with a potential loss of proteostasis in SIRT3cKO hearts. Cumulatively, these data show that the cardiomyocyte-specific loss of SIRT3 results in severe pathology with an accelerated aging phenotype.

Increased cardiac PFK-2 protects against high-fat diet-induced cardiomyopathy and mediates beneficial systemic metabolic effects.

A healthy heart adapts to changes in nutrient availability and energy demands. In metabolic diseases like type 2 diabetes (T2D), increased reliance on fatty acids for energy production contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction and cardiomyopathy. A principal regulator of cardiac metabolism is 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (PFK-2), which is a central driver of glycolysis. We hypothesized that increasing PFK-2 activity could mitigate cardiac dysfunction induced by high-fat diet (HFD). Wild type (WT) and cardiac-specific transgenic mice expressing PFK-2 (GlycoHi) were fed a low fat or HFD for 16 weeks to induce metabolic dysfunction. Metabolic phenotypes were determined by measuring mitochondrial bioenergetics and performing targeted quantitative proteomic and metabolomic analysis. Increasing cardiac PFK-2 had beneficial effects on cardiac and mitochondrial function. Unexpectedly, GlycoHi mice also exhibited sex-dependent systemic protection from HFD, including increased glucose homeostasis. These findings support improving glycolysis via PFK-2 activity can mitigate mitochondrial and functional changes that occur with metabolic syndrome.

Insulin signaling alters antioxidant capacity in the diabetic heart.

Diabetic cardiomyopathy is associated with an increase in oxidative stress. However, antioxidant therapy has shown a limited capacity to mitigate disease pathology. The molecular mechanisms responsible for the modulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and clearance must be better defined. The objective of this study was to determine how insulin affects superoxide radical (O2•-) levels. O2•- production was evaluated in adult cardiomyocytes isolated from control and Akita (type 1 diabetic) mice by spin-trapping electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. We found that the basal rates of O2•- production were comparable in control and Akita cardiomyocytes. However, culturing cardiomyocytes without insulin resulted in a significant increase in O2•- production only in the Akita group. In contrast, O2•- production was unaffected by high glucose and/or fatty acid supplementation. The increase in O2•- was due in part to a decrease in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. The PI3K inhibitor, LY294002, decreased Akita SOD activity when insulin was present, indicating that the modulation of antioxidant activity is through insulin signaling. The effect of insulin on mitochondrial O2•- production was evaluated in Akita mice that underwent a 1-week treatment of insulin. Mitochondria isolated from insulin-treated Akita mice produced less O2•- than vehicle-treated diabetic mice. Quantitative proteomics was performed on whole heart homogenates to determine how insulin affects antioxidant protein expression. Of 29 antioxidant enzymes quantified, thioredoxin 1 was the only one that was significantly enhanced by insulin treatment. In vitro analysis of thioredoxin 1 revealed a previously undescribed capacity of the enzyme to directly scavenge O2•-. These findings demonstrate that insulin has a role in mitigating cardiac oxidative stress in diabetes via regulation of endogenous antioxidant activity.

Molecular changes in transcription and metabolic pathways underlying muscle atrophy in the CuZnSOD null mouse model of sarcopenia.

Mice lacking the superoxide anion scavenger CuZn superoxide dismutase (Sod1-/- mice) develop a number of age-related phenotypes, including an early progression of muscle atrophy and weakness (sarcopenia) associated with loss of innervation. The purpose of this study was to delineate the early development of sarcopenia in the Sod1-/- mice and to measure changes in the muscle transcriptome, proteome, and eicosanoid profile at the stage when sarcopenia is markedly induced in this model (7-9 months of age). We found a strong correlation between muscle atrophy and mitochondrial state 1 hydroperoxide production, which was 40% higher in isolated mitochondria from Sod1-/- mouse gastrocnemius muscle by 2 months of age. The primary pathways showing altered gene expression in Sod1-/- mice identified by RNA-seq transcriptomic analysis are protein ubiquitination, synaptic long-term potentiation, calcium signaling, phospholipase C signaling, AMPK, and TWEAK signaling. Targeted proteomics shows elevated expression of mitochondrial proteins, fatty acid metabolism enzymes, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle enzymes, and antioxidants, while enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism are downregulated in Sod1-/- mice. LC-MS analysis of lipids in gastrocnemius muscle detected 78 eicosanoids, of which 31 are significantly elevated in muscle from Sod1-/- mice. These data suggest that mitochondrial hydroperoxide generation is elevated prior to muscle atrophy and may be a potential driving factor of changes in the transcriptome, proteome, and eicosanoid profile of the Sod1-/- mice. Together, these analyses revealed important molecular events that occur during muscle atrophy, which will pave the way for future studies using new approaches to treat sarcopenia.

Metabolic and Stress Response Changes Precede Disease Onset in the Spinal Cord of Mutant SOD1 ALS Mice.

Many Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) patients experience hypermetabolism, or an increase in measured vs. calculated metabolic rate. The cause of hypermetabolism and the effects on neuronal metabolism in ALS are currently unknown, but the efficacy of dietary interventions shows promise for metabolism as an ALS therapeutic target. The goal of this study is to measure changes in metabolic pathways as a function of disease progression in spinal cords of the SOD1G93A mouse model of ALS. We conducted a comprehensive assessment of protein expression for metabolic pathways, antioxidants, chaperones, and proteases in lumbar spinal cord from male SOD1G93A mice at pre-onset, onset, and end-stages of the disease using targeted proteomic analysis. These results reveal that protein content of metabolic proteins including proteins involved in glycolysis, ß-oxidation, and mitochondrial metabolism is altered in SOD1G93A mouse spinal cord well before disease onset. The changes in mitochondrial metabolism proteins are associated with decreased maximal respiration and glycolytic flux in SOD1G93A dermal fibroblasts and increased hydrogen peroxide and lipid hydroperoxide production in mitochondria from sciatic nerve and gastrocnemius muscle fibers at end stage of disease. Consistent with redox dysregulation, expression of the glutathione antioxidant system is decreased, and peroxiredoxins and catalase expression are increased. In addition, stress response proteases and chaperones, including those involved in the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt), are induced before disease onset. In summary, we report that metabolic and stress response changes occur in SOD1G93A lumbar spinal cord before motor symptom onset, and are primarily caused by SOD1G93A expression and do not vary greatly as a function of disease course.

A quantitative proteomic profile of the Nrf2-mediated antioxidant response of macrophages to oxidized LDL determined by multiplexed selected reaction monitoring.

The loading of macrophages with oxidized low density lipoprotein (LDL) is a key part of the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. Oxidized LDL contains a wide ranging set of toxic species, yet the molecular events that allow macrophages to withstand loading with these toxic species are not completely characterized. The transcription factor nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) is a master regulator of the cellular stress response. However, the specific parts of the Nrf2-dependent stress response are diverse, with both tissue- and treatment-dependent components. The goal of these experiments was to develop and use a quantitative proteomic approach to characterize the Nrf2-dependent response in macrophages to oxidized LDL. Cultured mouse macrophages, the J774 macrophage-like cell line, were treated with a combination of oxidized LDL, the Nrf2-stabilizing reagent tert- butylhydroquinone (tBHQ), and/or Nrf2 siRNA. Protein expression was determined using a quantitative proteomics assay based on selected reaction monitoring. The assay was multiplexed to monitor a set of 28 antioxidant and stress response proteins, 6 housekeeping proteins, and 1 non-endogenous standard protein. The results have two components. The first component is the validation of the multiplexed, quantitative proteomics assay. The assay is shown to be fundamentally quantitative, precise, and accurate. The second component is the characterization of the Nrf2-mediated stress response. Treatment with tBHQ and/or Nrf2 siRNA gave statistically significant changes in the expression of a subset of 11 proteins. Treatment with oxidized LDL gave statistically significant increases in the expression of 7 of those 11 proteins plus one additional protein. All of the oxLDL-mediated increases were attenuated by Nrf2 siRNA. These results reveal a specific, multifaceted response of the foam cells to the incoming toxic oxidized LDL.