Lymphspiration: The Axillary Web and Its Lymphatic Origin.

Axillary web syndrome (AWS) is a frequently overlooked problem that causes morbidity in the early post-operative period following cancer surgery with axillary lymph node removal (1-3). AWS, also known as "cording" was first described in 2001 by Moskovitz as "a visible web of axillary skin overlying palpable cords of tissue that are made taut by shoulder abduction" (1). Over a decade has passed since Moskovitz's seminal article was published, and we still lack a good understanding of AWS. This condition has been suboptimally studied using widely differing criteria. This has resulted in almost meaningless data such as the incidence of the problem, which varies from 6 to 72% following cancer surgery with axillary lymph node dissection (ALND) or sentinel node biopsy (SNB) (1-5). AWS continues to perplex the medical and scientific community. For instance, there is no explanation for the observation that individuals with a lower body mass index (BMI) are at higher risk for AWS (1-3). There are differing views on the physiological and etiological aspects of AWS. Some believe there is a vascular component involving the lymphatic and/or venous system (1, 6-11). Others consider the cord to be composed of fascial tissue (12). The terminology used to describe the cord varies dependent on the researcher's opinions, which are based on their speculations as to the underlying pathophysiology of the condition. The purpose of this paper is to present a new perspective that supports the theory that AWS is associated with the lymphatic system.Based on our clinical experience including more in-depth analysis of specific cases, our clinical research, and the accumulated literature, we present our proposal to explain the pathophysiology of AWS, define the period of onset and duration of AWS, outline possible reasons for the association between AWS and BMI, and postulate why we occasionally see cases of AWS that are associated with conditions that disturb normal lymphatic function but are unrelated to surgery.

Characterizing axillary web syndrome: ultrasonographic efficacy.

The aim of this study was to determine if ultrasound could successfully characterize axillary web syndrome (AWS) and clarify the pathophysiologic basis of AWS as a vascular or lymphatic abnormality, or an abnormal tissue structure. This prospective study evaluated women who developed AWS following breast cancer surgery. Using an 18 MHz ultrasound transducer, images were taken of the AWS cord and compared to mirror images on the contralateral side. A blinded radiologist assessed the ultrasound characteristics of and structural changes in the skin and subcutaneous tissue and formulated an opinion as to the side in which AWS was located. Seventeen subjects participated in the study. No structure or abnormality consistent with AWS could be identified by ultrasound. There were no statistical differences between the ipsilateral and contralateral side in skin thickness; subcutaneous reflector thickness, number or disorganization; or subcutaneous tissue echodensity (p>0.05). The radiologist correctly identified the side with AWS in 12 of 17 subjects (=0.41). A distinct ultrasonographic structure or abnormality could not be identified in subjects with AWS using 18 MHz ultrasound. The inability to identify a specific structure excludes the possibility that AWS is associated with vein thrombosis or a fascial abnormality, and supports the theory that AWS may be pathology that is not visible with 18 MHz ultrasound, such as microlymphatic stasis or binding of fibrin or other proteins in the interstitial space.

Axillary web syndrome following breast cancer surgery: symptoms, complications, and management strategies.

Axillary web syndrome (AWS) is a common condition occurring in up to 86% of patients following breast cancer surgery with ipsilateral lymphadenectomy of one or more nodes. AWS presents as a single cord or multiple thin cords in the subcutaneous tissues of the ipsilateral axilla. The cords may extend variable distances "down" the ipsilateral arm and/or chest wall. The cords frequently result in painful shoulder abduction and limited shoulder range of motion. AWS most frequently becomes symptomatic between 2 and 8 weeks postoperatively but can also develop and recur months to years after surgery. Education about and increased awareness of AWS should be promoted for patients and caregivers. Assessments for AWS should be performed on a regular basis following breast cancer surgery especially if there has been associated lymphadenectomy. Physical therapy, which consists of manual therapy, exercise, education, and other rehabilitation modalities to improve range of motion and decrease pain, is recommended in the treatment of AWS.

Evaluation of urinary carnitine and taurine excretion in 5 cystinuric dogs with carnitine and taurine deficiency.

Five client owned dogs with cystinuria were diagnosed with carnitine and taurine deficiency while participating in a clinical trial that used dietary management of their urolithiasis. Stored 24-hour urine samples collected from the cystinuric dogs before enrollment in the clinical diet trial were quantitatively evaluated for carnitine and taurine. These results were compared to those obtained from 18 healthy Beagles. Both groups of dogs were fed the same maintenance diet for a minimum of 2 weeks before 24-hour urine collection. The protocol used for 24-hour urine collections was the same for cystinuric dogs and healthy Beagles except that cystinuric dogs were catheterized at baseline, 8 hours, 12 hours, and at the end of the collection, whereas Beagles were catheterized at baseline, 8 hours, and at the end of the collection. Three of 5 dogs with cystinuria had increased renal excretion of carnitine. None of the cystinuric dogs had increased renal excretion of taurine, but cystinuric dogs excreted significantly less (P < .05) taurine in their urine than the healthy Beagles. Carnitinuria has not been recognized previously in either humans or dogs with cystinuria, and it may be 1 risk factor for developing carnitine deficiency. Cystinuric dogs in this study were not taurinuric; however, cystine is a precursor amino acid for taurine synthesis. Therefore, cystinuria may be 1 risk factor for developing taurine deficiency in dogs. We suggest that dogs with cystinuria be monitored for carnitine and taurine deficiency or supplemented with carnitine and taurine.

Bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of intravenously and orally administered allopurinol in healthy beagles.

OBJECTIVES: To determine bioavailability and pharmacokinetic parameters for allopurinol and its active metabolite, oxypurinol. ANIMALS: 6 healthy, reproductively intact female Beagles, 4.9 to 5.2 years old, and weighing 9.5 to 11.5 kg. PROCEDURE: In the first part of the study, allopurinol was administered IV at a dosage of 10 mg/kg of body weight to 3 dogs and 5 mg/kg to 3 dogs; the sequence was then reversed. In the second part of the study, allopurinol was administered orally at a dosage of 15 mg/kg to 3 dogs and 7.5 mg/kg to 3 dogs; the sequence was then reversed. In the third part of the study, allopurinol was administered IV (10 mg/kg), orally (15 mg/kg) with food, and orally (15 mg/kg) without food. Plasma samples were obtained at timed intervals, and concentrations of allopurinol and oxypurinol were determined. RESULTS: Maximal plasma allopurinol concentration and area under plasma allopurinol and oxypurinol concentration-time curves were 2 times greater when dogs were given 10 mg of allopurinol/kg IV, compared with 5 mg/kg, and when dogs were given 15 mg of allopurinol/kg orally, compared with 7.5 mg/kg. Allopurinol elimination half-life, time to reach maximal plasma oxypurinol concentration, and oxypurinol elimination half-life were significantly greater when dogs received 10 mg of allopurinol/kg IV, compared with 5 mg/kg, and when dogs received 15 mg of allopurinol/kg orally, compared with 7.5 mg/kg. CONCLUSIONS: Elimination of allopurinol is dependent on nonlinear enzyme kinetics. The bioavailability of allopurinol, and pharmacokinetic parameters of allopurinol and oxypurinol after oral administration of allopurinol, are not affected by administration with food. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A dose threshold exists beyond which additional allopurinol would not substantially further inhibit xanthine oxidase activity. Oral administration of > 15 mg of allopurinol/kg to dogs would not be expected to result in greater reduction of plasma and urine uric acid concentrations. Also, allopurinol may be administered to dogs for dissolution or prevention of urate uroliths without regard to time of feeding.

Influence of two diets on pharmacokinetic parameters of allopurinol and oxypurinol in healthy beagles.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether diet influences the metabolism of IV administered allopurinol in healthy dogs. ANIMALS: 6 healthy female Beagles, 4.9 to 5.2 years old and weighing 9.6 to 11.5 kg. PROCEDURES: Allopurinol was administered IV (10 mg/kg) while dogs consumed a 10.4% protein (dry weight), casein-based diet or a 31.4% (dry weight), meat-based diet. After each dose, plasma samples were obtained at timed intervals, and concentrations of allopurinol and its active metabolite, oxypurinol, were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. An iterative, nonlinear regression analytical program was used to determine the weighted least-squares, best-fit curves for plasma allopurinol and oxypurinol concentration-time data. From these data, pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated. RESULTS: Pharmacokinetic parameters for allopurinol and oxypurinol were not different when comparing the effect of diet. CONCLUSION: There is no influence of diet on pharmacokinetic parameters of allopurinol or oxypurinol. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In contrast to observations in human beings, allopurinol metabolism is not influenced by diet. Therefore, formation of xanthine-containing calculi in dogs consuming a high-protein diet and receiving allopurinol is probably not attributable to alteration of allopurinol metabolism.

Influence of four diets on uric acid metabolism and endogenous acid production in healthy beagles.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of 3 diets used to dissolve or prevent ammonium urate uroliths in dogs, and a diet formulated for growth, on 24-hour excretions of uric acid, ammonia, net acid, titratable acid, bicarbonate, and creatinine; 24-hour urine volumes; pH values of 24-hour urine samples; plasma uric acid concentration; serum creatinine concentration; and endogenous creatinine clearance values. DESIGN: Randomized block. ANIMALS: Six reproductively intact female Beagles, 3.9 to 4.2 years old, weighing 8.5 to 11.1 kg. PROCEDURES: Four diets were evaluated for their ability to dissolve magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate (struvite) uroliths (diet S); to minimize uric acid excretion (diet U); to minimize clinical signs associated with renal failure (diet K); and to promote growth in pups (diet P). Each diet was fed for 14 days; then 24-hour urine samples were collected. An adult maintenance diet was fed during a 7-day washout period. RESULTS: Consumption of diet U was associated with lowest plasma uric acid concentration, lowest 24-hour urinary uric acid, ammonia, titratable acid, and net acid excretions, lowest endogenous creatinine clearance values, highest 24-hour urinary bicarbonate excretion and urine pH values, and highest 24-hour urine volumes. Consumption of diet P was associated with opposite results; results of consumption of diets S and K were intermediate between those for diets U and P. CONCLUSION: Consumption of diet U by healthy Beagles is associated with reduced magnitude of urinary excretion of uric acid and ammonia, with alkaluria, and with polyuria, which may be beneficial in the management of ammonium urate uroliths in dogs. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results support use of diet U for management of ammonium urate urolithiasis in dogs.

Effects of dietary fat and L-carnitine on plasma and whole blood taurine concentrations and cardiac function in healthy dogs fed protein-restricted diets.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate plasma taurine concentrations (PTC), whole blood taurine concentrations (WBTC), and echocardiographic findings in dogs fed 1 of 3 protein-restricted diets that varied in fat and L-carnitine content. ANIMALS: 17 healthy Beagles. DESIGN: Baseline PTC and WBTC were determined, and echocardiography was performed in all dogs consuming a maintenance diet. Dogs were then fed 1 of 3 protein-restricted diets for 48 months: a low-fat (LF) diet, a high-fat and L-carnitine supplemented (HF + C) diet, or a high-fat (HF) diet. All diets contained methionine and cystine concentrations at or above recommended Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) minimum requirements. Echocardiographic findings, PTC, and WBTC were evaluated every 6 months. RESULTS: The PTC and WBTC were not significantly different among the 3 groups after 12 months. All groups had significant decreases in WBTC from baseline concentrations, and the HF group also had a significant decrease in PTC. One dog with PT and WBT deficiency developed dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). Taurine supplementation resulted in significant improvement in cardiac function. Another dog with decreased WBTC developed changes compatible with early DCM. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results revealed that dogs fed protein-restricted diets can develop decreased taurine concentrations; therefore, protein-restricted diets should be supplemented with taurine. Dietary methionine and cystine concentrations at or above AAFCO recommended minimum requirements did not prevent decreased taurine concentrations. The possibility exists that AAFCO recommended minimum requirements are not adequate for dogs consuming protein-restricted diets. Our results also revealed that, similar to cats, dogs can develop DCM secondary to taurine deficiency, and taurine supplementation can result in substantial improvement in cardiac function.

Reliability of single urine and serum samples for estimation of 24-hour urinary uric acid excretion in six healthy beagles.

Urine uric acid-to-urine creatinine ratios (UUA:UC), urine uric acid concentrations, urine uric acid concentrations corrected for glomerular filtration rate, and urinary uric acid fractional excretions were compared with 24-hour urinary uric acid excretions measured in 6 healthy adult female Beagles. Comparisons, using correlation analysis, were made when dogs consumed a 10.4% protein (dry weight), casein-based diet and a 31.4% protein (dry weight), meat-based diet. The UUA:UC, urine uric acid concentrations corrected for glomerular filtration rate, and urinary uric acid fractional excretions were not reliable estimates of 24-hour urinary uric acid excretions during consumption of either diet. Urine uric acid concentrations in samples collected 2, 4, 6, and 24 hours after initiation of collection correlated with 24-hour urinary uric acid excretions when dogs consumed the casein-based diet; correlation was not found at any time interval when dogs consumed the meat-based diet. Therefore, determination of 24-hour urinary uric acid excretion is recommended because UUA:UC are unreliable.

Diet effect on activity product ratios of uric acid, sodium urate, and ammonium urate in urine formed by healthy beagles.

Urine activity product ratios of uric acid, sodium urate, and ammonium urate and urinary excretion of metabolites were determined in 24-hour samples produced by 6 healthy Beagles during periods of consumption of a low-protein, casein-based diet (diet A) and a high-protein, meat-based diet (diet B). Comparison of effects of diet A with those of diet B revealed: significantly lower activity product ratios of uric acid (P = 0.025), sodium urate (P = 0.045), and ammonium urate (P = 0.0045); significantly lower 24-hour urinary excretion of uric acid (P = 0.002), ammonia (P = 0.0002), sodium (P = 0.01), calcium (P = 0.005), phosphorus (P = 0.0003), magnesium (P = 0.01), and oxalic acid (P = 0.004); significantly (P = 0.0001) higher 24-hour urine pH; and significantly (P = 0.01) lower endogenous creatinine clearance. These results suggest that consumption of diet A minimizes changes in urine that predispose dogs to uric acid, sodium urate, and ammonium urate urolithiasis.

Influence of four diets containing approximately 11% protein (dry weight) on uric acid, sodium urate, and ammonium urate urine activity product ratios of healthy beagles.

Urine activity product ratios of uric acid (APRua), sodium urate (APRna), and ammonium urate (APRau), and urinary excretion of 10 metabolites were determined in 24-hour urine samples produced by 6 healthy Beagles during periods of consumption of 4 diets containing approximately 11% protein (dry weight) and various protein sources: a 72% moisture, casein-based diet; a 10% moisture, egg-based diet; a 72% moisture, chicken-based diet; and a 71% moisture, chicken-based, liver-flavored diet. Significantly (P < 0.05) higher APRua, APRna, and APRau were observed when dogs consumed the egg-based diet, compared with the other 3 diets; there were no differences in these ratios among the other 3 diets. Twenty-four-hour urinary excretions of chloride, potassium, phosphorus, and oxalic acid were significantly (P < 0.05) higher when dogs consumed the egg-based diet. Twenty-four-hour urinary excretions of sodium were significantly (P < 0.05) higher when dogs consumed the egg-based diet, compared with the casein-based diet and the chicken-based, liver-flavored diet, but were not significantly different between the egg-based diet and chicken-based diet. Twenty-four-hour urine volume was similar when dogs consumed the 4 diets. Twenty-four-hour endogenous creatinine clearance was significantly (P < 0.05) lower when dogs consumed the casein-based diet; there were no differences among the other 3 diets. Although consumption of all diets was associated with production of alkaline urine, the 24-hour urine pH was significantly (P < 0.05) higher when dogs consumed the egg-based diet.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Prevalence of cystine and urate uroliths in bulldogs and urate uroliths in dalmatians.

Data were evaluated from all dogs admitted to the University of Minnesota Veterinary Teaching Hospital (UMVTH) between June 1, 1981 and Dec 31, 1991. During this period, uroliths were retrieved and analyzed from 452 of 37,574 dogs admitted. The odds that uroliths from Bulldogs were composed of cystine were 32.3 times greater than for other breeds evaluated. The odds that a Bulldog admitted was affected with cystine uroliths were 154.1 times greater than for other breeds. Cystine uroliths were retrieved only from male Bulldogs. The odds that uroliths from Bulldogs were composed of urate were 7.9 times greater than for other breeds. The odds that a Bulldog admitted was affected with urate uroliths were 43.0 times greater than for other breeds. Male Bulldogs were 14.3 times more likely to be affected with urate uroliths than were females. The odds that uroliths from Dalmatians were composed of urate were 228.9 times greater than for other breeds. The odds that a Dalmation admitted was affected with urate uroliths were 122.4 times greater than for other breeds. Male Dalmatians were 16.4 times more likely to be affected with urate uroliths than were females. Data also were evaluated from files of canine uroliths submitted to the Minnesota Urolith Center for quantitative mineral analysis between June 1, 1981 and Dec 31, 1991. During this period, 94 of 11,188 uroliths analyzed were obtained from Bulldogs and 387 were obtained from Dalmatians. The odds that uroliths retrieved from Bulldogs were composed of cystine were 40.7 times greater than for other breeds. Cystine uroliths were retrieved only from male Bulldogs.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Association between dietary factors and calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate urolithiasis in cats.

OBJECTIVE: To identify dietary factors associated with the increase in occurrence of calcium oxalate (CaOx) uroliths and the decrease in occurrence of magnesium ammonium phosphate (MAP) uroliths in cats. DESIGN: Case-control study. ANIMALS: 173 cats with CaOx uroliths, 290 cats with MAP uroliths, and 827 cats without any urinary tract diseases. PROCEDURE: Univariate and multivariate logistic regression were performed. RESULTS: Cats fed diets low in sodium or potassium or formulated to maximize urine acidity had an increased risk of developing CaOx uroliths but a decreased risk of developing MAP uroliths. Additionally, compared with the lowest contents, diets with the highest moisture or protein contents and with moderate magnesium, phosphorus, or calcium contents were associated with decreased risk of CaOx urolith formation. In contrast, diets with moderate fat or carbohydrate contents were associated with increased risk of CaOx urolith formation. Diets with the highest magnesium, phosphorus, calcium, chloride, or fiber contents and moderate protein content were associated with increased risk of MAP urolith formation. On the other hand, diets with the highest fat content were associated with decreased risk of MAP urolith formation. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that diets formulated to contain higher protein, sodium, potassium, moisture, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium contents and with decreased urine acidifying potential may minimize formation of CaOx uroliths in cats. Diets formulated to contain higher fat content and lower protein and potassium contents and with increased urine acidifying potential may minimize formation of MAP uroliths.

Patient and environmental factors associated with calcium oxalate urolithiasis in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that breed, age, sex, body condition, and environment are risk factors for development of calcium oxalate uroliths in dogs. DESIGN: Case-control study. ANIMALS: 1,074 dogs that formed calcium oxalate uroliths and 1,724 control dogs that did not have uroliths. PROCEDURE: A validated multiple-choice questionnaire was designed to collect information from veterinarians and owners within 1 year of the date of urolith detection concerning signalment and environment of the dogs. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to calculate odds ratios to assess whether breed, age, sex, body condition, and environment were risk factors for calcium oxalate urolith formation. RESULTS: Middle-aged (8- to 12-year-old) castrated male dogs had increased risk for formation of calcium oxalate uroliths. Urolith formation was also associated with increasing age. Dogs of certain breeds, including Miniature and Standard Schnauzer, Lhasa Apso, Yorkshire Terrier, Bichon Frise, Shih Tzu, and Miniature and Toy Poodle, had increased risk for developing calcium oxalate uroliths. Overweight dogs also had increased risk. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Knowledge of patient and environmental risk factors for development of calcium oxalate uroliths may facilitate development of surveillance strategies that result in earlier detection of this disease. Modification of environmental factors and body weight may minimize calcium oxalate urolith formation and recurrence.

Association between patient-related factors and risk of calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate urolithiasis in cats.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether breed, age, sex, or reproductive status (i.e., neutered versus sexually intact) was associated with the apparent increase in prevalence of calcium oxalate (CaOx) uroliths and the decrease in prevalence of magnesium ammonium phosphate (MAP) uroliths in cats over time. DESIGN: Case-control study. ANIMALS: Case cats consisted of cats with CaOx (n = 7,895) or MAP (7,334) uroliths evaluated at the Minnesota Urolith Center between 1981 and 1997. Control cats consisted of cats without urinary tract disease admitted to veterinary teaching hospitals in the United States and Canada during the same period (150,482). PROCEDURE: Univariate and multivariate logistic regression were performed. RESULTS: British Shorthair, Exotic Shorthair, Foreign Shorthair, Havana Brown, Himalayan, Persian, Ragdoll, and Scottish Fold cats had an increased risk of developing CaOx uroliths, as did male cats and neutered cats. Chartreux, domestic shorthair, Foreign Shorthair, Himalayan, Oriental Shorthair, and Ragdoll cats had an increased risk of developing MAP uroliths, as did female cats and neutered cats. Cats with CaOx uroliths were significantly older than cats with MAP uroliths. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that changes in breed, age, sex, or reproductive status did not contribute to the apparent reciprocal relationship between prevalences of CaOx and MAP uroliths in cats during a 17-year period. However, cats of particular breeds, ages, sex, and reproductive status had an increased risk of developing CaOx and MAP uroliths.

Nonsurgical removal of urocystoliths in dogs and cats by voiding urohydropropulsion.

A technique called voiding urohydropropulsion has been developed that facilitates nonsurgical removal of urocystoliths. Voiding urohydropropulsion was performed in 11 dogs and 10 cats with urocystoliths. Urocystoliths were completely removed from 15 of 21 animals (5 female dogs, 3 male dogs, 5 female cats, and 1 male cat). The number of uroliths removed from any animal varied between 1 and 983. The mean time required to complete voiding urohydropropulsion in the 15 animals from which all uroliths were completely removed was 22 minutes. In 6 animals (2 female dogs, 3 female cats, and 1 male cat), not all urocystoliths were removed. Visible hematuria was induced in all animals as a consequence of voiding urohydropropulsion. In dogs, visible hematuria resolved within 4 hours. Dysuria was not induced by this technique in dogs. In many cats, visible hematuria and dysuria persisted for 1 to 2 days. One male cat developed urethral obstruction after we failed to remove a urolith from the bladder. The urolith was returned to the urinary bladder, and subsequently removed by cystotomy. Voiding urohydropropulsion is a simple and effective method that should be considered for removal of small urocystoliths from dogs and cats before cystotomy is performed.

Epizootiologic evaluation of urolithiasis in cats: 3,498 cases (1982-1992).

OBJECTIVE: to test the hypothesis that breed, sex and age of cats, and anatomic location of uroliths are risk factors for calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate urolithiasis. DESIGN: Retrospective case-control study. SAMPLE POPULATION: Records of 3,498 feline urolith accessions submitted between September 1982 and September 1992. PROCEDURE: Mineral composition of feline uroliths was quantitatively analyzed. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated for breed, sex, age, and urolith location as risk factors for calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate urolith formation. The population at risk was defined as all cats for which that type of urolith had been submitted. The control population was all cats for which uroliths had been submitted, excluding cats with the type of urolith being evaluated. RESULTS: Burmese, Persian, and Himalayan breeds were at higher risk for developing calcium oxalate uroliths, but at reduced risk for developing magnesium ammonium phosphate uroliths. Compared with females, neutered male cats had a higher risk for developing calcium oxalate uroliths, but a reduced risk for developing magnesium ammonium phosphate uroliths. The risk for calcium oxalate urolith formation increased with age. One- to 2-year-old female cats had the highest risk for magnesium ammonium phosphate uroliths. Uroliths removed from the kidneys were more likely to be composed of calcium oxalate than of magnesium ammonium phosphate. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Breed, sex, and age of cats, and anatomic location of uroliths should be considered when evaluating risk of calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate urolithiasis in urolith-forming cats.

Urolith analysis. Submission, methods, and interpretation.

The detection, treatment, and prevention of the causes underlying urolithiasis depend on knowledge of the composition and structure of the entire stone. Therefore, proper and complete analysis of uroliths is an important part of proper patient care. This article discusses methods of urolith retrieval, proper sample submission, methods of urolith analysis, and interpretation of results.

Feline urolithiasis. Etiology and pathophysiology.

A variety of different types of uroliths occur in cats, of which calcium oxalate and magnesium ammonium phosphate are the most common. Treatment and prevention are most likely to be successful if associated risk factors are identified and eliminated or controlled.

Feline urethral plugs. Etiology and pathophysiology.

Feline urethral plugs commonly are composed of large quantities of matrix mixed with minerals (especially struvite). However, some urethral plugs are composed primarily of matrix, some consist of sloughed tissue, blood, and/or inflammatory reactants, and a few are composed primarily of aggregates of crystalline minerals. The formation of matrix-crystalline urethral plugs may be analogous to the preparation of fruit jello.