High Temperature Electron Diffraction on Organic Crystals: In Situ Crystal Structure Determination of Pigment Orange 34.

Small molecule structures and their applications rely on good knowledge of their atomic arrangements. However, the crystal structures of these compounds and materials, which are often composed of fine crystalline domains, cannot be determined with single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Three-dimensional electron diffraction (3D ED) is already becoming a reliable method for the structure analysis of submicrometer-sized organic materials. The reduction of electron beam damage is essential for successful structure determination and often prevents the analysis of organic materials at room temperature, not to mention high temperature studies. In this work, we apply advanced 3D ED methods at different temperatures enabling the accurate structure determination of two phases of Pigment Orange 34 (C34H28N8O2Cl2), a biphenyl pyrazolone pigment that has been industrially produced for more than 80 years and used for plastics application. The crystal structure of the high-temperature phase, which can be formed during plastic coloration, was determined at 220 °C. For the first time, we were able to observe a reversible phase transition in an industrial organic pigment in the solid state, even with atomic resolution, despite crystallites being submicrometer in size. By localizing hydrogen atoms, we were even able to detect the tautomeric state of the molecules at different temperatures. This demonstrates that precise, fast, and low-dose 3D ED measurements enable high-temperature studies the door for general in situ studies of nanocrystalline materials at the atomic level.

Synthesis and Structure Evolution in Metal Carbazole Diphosphonates Followed by Electron Diffraction.

To access porous metal phosphonates, a new V-shaped, rigid, and sterically demanding diphosphonic acid, namely 3,6-diphosphono-9H-carbazole (H4L), was designed and employed in a high-throughput investigation. Screening of different metal salts and subsequent optimization studies resulted in the isolation of two porous metal phosphonates [Cu2(H2O)2(L)]·2H2O (CAU-37) and [Zn6.75(H2O)1.5(HL)2.5(L)1.5]·8H2O (CAU-57). Structure determination was accomplished by electron diffraction and the dehydration behavior of CAU-37 was followed in situ. A rare case of intralayer water de-/adsorption in CAU-37 was found which leads to a cell volume change of 11.9%. Rod-shaped inorganic building units (IBUs) are connected to layers and structural flexibility is due to "accordion-like" structural changes within the layers. In contrast, in CAU-57 a layered IBU is found, which usually results in the formation of dense structures. Due to the shape and rigidity of the linker, the interconnection of the IBUs results in the formation of pores. Water sorption measurements in combination with powder X-ray diffraction data confirmed the reversibility under structural retention.

Topochemical Fluorination of LaBaInO4 to LaBaInO3F2, Their Optical Characterization, and Photocatalytic Activities for Hydrogen Evolution.

We report on a nonoxidative topochemical route for the synthesis of a novel indate-based oxyfluoride, LaBaInO3F2, using a low-temperature reaction of Ruddlesden-Popper-type LaBaInO4 with polyvinylidene difluoride as a fluorinating agent. The reaction involves the replacement of oxide ions with fluoride ions as well as the insertion of fluoride ions into the interstitial sites. From the characterization via powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) and Rietveld analysis as well as automated electron diffraction tomography (ADT), it is deduced that the fluorination results in a symmetry lowering from I4/mmm (139) to monoclinic C2/c (15) with an expansion perpendicular to the perovskite layers and a strong tilting of the octahedra in the ab plane. Disorder of the anions on the apical and interstitial sites seems to be favored. The most stable configuration for the anion ordering is estimated based on an evaluation of bond distances from the ADT measurements via bond valence sums (BVSs). The observed disordering of the anions in the oxyfluoride results in changes in the optical properties and thus shows that the topochemical anion modification can present a viable route to alter the optical properties. Partial densities of states (PDOSs) obtained from ab initio density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal a bandgap modification upon fluoride-ion introduction which originates from the presence of the oxide anions on the interstitial sites. The photocatalytic performance of the oxide and oxyfluoride shows that both materials are photocatalytically active for hydrogen (H2) evolution.

A Novel High-Pressure Tin Oxynitride Sn2 N2 O.

We report the first oxynitride of tin, Sn2 N2 O (SNO), exhibiting a Rh2 S3 -type crystal structure with space group Pbcn. All Sn atoms are in six-fold coordination, in contrast to Si in silicon oxynitride (Si2 N2 O) and Ge in the isostructural germanium oxynitride (Ge2 N2 O), which appear in four-fold coordination. SNO was synthesized at 20 GPa and 1200-1500 °C in a large volume press. The recovered samples were characterized by synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction and single-crystal electron diffraction in the TEM using the automated diffraction tomography (ADT) technique. The isothermal bulk modulus was determined as Bo =193(5) GPa by using in-situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction in a diamond anvil cell. The structure model is supported by DFT calculations. The enthalpy of formation, the bulk modulus, and the band structure have been calculated.

Selective Synthesis of Monodisperse CoO Nanooctahedra as Catalysts for Electrochemical Water Oxidation.

Thermal decomposition is a promising route for the synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles because size and morphology can be tuned by minute control of the reaction variables. We synthesized CoO nanooctahedra with diameters of ∼48 nm and a narrow size distribution. Full control over nanoparticle size and morphology could be obtained by controlling the reaction time, surfactant ratio, and reactant concentrations. We show that the particle size does not increase monotonically with time or surfactant concentration but passes through minima or maxima. We unravel the critical role of the surfactants in nucleation and growth and rationalize the observed experimental trends in accordance with simulation experiments. The as-synthesized CoO nanooctahedra exhibit superior electrocatalytic activity with long-term stability during oxygen evolution. The morphology of the CoO particles controls the electrocatalytic reaction through the distinct surface sites involved in the oxygen evolution reaction.

Corrosion of Heritage Objects: Collagen-Like Triple Helix Found in the Calcium Acetate Hemihydrate Crystal Structure.

Helical motifs are common in nature, for example, the DNA double or the collagen triple helix. In the latter proteins, the helical motif originates from glycine, the smallest amino acid, whose molecular confirmation is closely related to acetic acid. The combination of acetic acid with calcium and water, which are also omnipresent in nature, materializing as calcium acetate hemihydrate, was now revealed to exhibit a collagen-like triple helix structure. This calcium salt is observed as efflorescence phase on calcareous heritage objects, like historic Mollusca shells, pottery or marble reliefs. In a model experiment pure calcium acetate hemihydrate was crystallized on the surface of a terracotta vessel. Calcium acetate hemihydrate crystallizes in a surprisingly large unit cell with a volume of 11,794.5(3) Å3 at ambient conditions. Acetate ions bridge neighboring calcium cations forming spiral chains, which are arranged in a triple helix motif.

A Cationic Oligomer as an Organic Template for Direct Synthesis of Aluminosilicate ITH Zeolite.

There are a large number of zeolites, such as ITH, that cannot be prepared in the aluminosilicate form. Now, the successful synthesis of aluminosilicate ITH zeolite using a simple cationic oligomer as an organic template is presented. Key to the success is that the cationic oligomer has a strong complexation ability with aluminum species combined with a structural directing ability for the ITH structure similar to that of the conventional organic template. The aluminosilicate ITH zeolite has very high crystallinity, nanosheet-like crystal morphology, large surface area, fully four-coordinated Al species, and abundant acidic sites. Methanol-to-propylene (MTP) tests reveal that the Al-ITH zeolite shows much higher selectivity for propylene and longer lifetime than commercial ZSM-5. FCC tests show that Al-ITH zeolite is a good candidate as a shape-selective FCC additive for enhancing propylene and butylene selectivity.

Direct Synthesis of Aluminosilicate IWR Zeolite from a Strong Interaction between Zeolite Framework and Organic Template.

A large amount of zeolite structures are still not synthetically available or not available in the form of aluminosilicate currently. Despite significant progress in the development of predictive concepts for zeolite synthesis, accessing some of these new materials is still challenging. One example is the IWR structure as well. Despite successful synthesis of Ge-based IWR zeolites, direct synthesis of aluminosilicate IWR zeolite is still not successful. In this report we show how a suitable organic structure directing agent (OSDA), through modeling of an OSDA/zeolite cage interaction, could access directly the aluminum-containing IWR structure (denoted as COE-6), which might allow access to new classes of materials and thus open opportunities in valuable chemical applications. The experimental results reveal that the COE-6 zeolites with a SiO2/Al2O3 ratio as low as 30 could be obtained. Very interestingly, the COE-6 zeolite has much higher hydrothermal and thermal stabilities than those of the conventional Ge-Al-IWR zeolite. In methanol-to-propylene (MTP) reaction, the COE-6 zeolite exhibits excellent selectivity for propylene, offering a potential catalyst for MTP reaction in the future.

Expanding the Variety of Zirconium-based Inorganic Building Units for Metal-Organic Frameworks.

Two new zirconium-based metal-organic frameworks with the composition [Zr6 O4 (OH)4 (OAc)6 (BDC)3 ] (CAU-26) and [Zr5 O4 (OH)4 (OAc)4 (BDC)2 ] (CAU-27) are reported, which were synthesized from acetic acid, a rarely utilized but green and sustainable solvent (BDC2- : 1,4-benzenedicarboxylate). Structure determination aided by automated electron diffraction tomography revealed that CAU-26 is composed of layers of well-known {Zr6 O8 } clusters interconnected by terephthalate ions. In contrast CAU-27 exhibits a three-dimensional structure with a so far unknown type of one-dimensional inorganic building unit (IBU), which can be rationalized as condensed polyhedron-sharing chains of {Zr6 O8 } clusters. CAU-26 occurs as an intermediate of the CAU-27 synthesis and can be isolated easily, when reaction temperature and time are decreased. We were also able to synthesize two isoreticular derivatives of CAU-27 with extended linker molecules by implementing 4,4'-biphenyldicarboxylic acid (H2 BPDC) and 5,5'-dicarboxy-2,2'-bipyridine (H2 BIPY). All materials show high thermal and chemical stability as well as permanent microporosity. The excellent stability of CAU-27-BIPY was exploited to synthesize a performant iridium-supported heterogeneous MOF-based catalyst for the direct C-H borylation of arenes.

Controlling the Morphology of Au-Pd Heterodimer Nanoparticles by Surface Ligands.

Controlling the morphology of noble-metal nanoparticles is mandatory to tune specific properties such as catalytic and optical behavior. Heterodimers consisting of two noble metals have been synthesized, so far mostly in aqueous media using selective surfactants or chemical etching strategies. We report a facile synthesis for Au@Pd and Pd@Au heterodimer nanoparticles (NPs) with morphologies ranging from segregated domains (heteroparticles) to core-shell structures by applying a seed-mediated growth process with Au and Pd seed nanoparticles in 1-octadecene (ODE), which is a high-boiling organic solvent. The as-synthesized oleylamine (OAm) functionalized Au NPs led to the formation of OAm-Au@Pd heteroparticles with a "windmill" morphology, having an Au core and Pd "blades". The multiply twinned structure of the Au seed particles (⌀ ≈ 9-11 nm) is associated with a reduced barrier for heterogeneous nucleation. This leads to island growth of bimetallic Au@Pd heteroparticles with less-regular morphologies. The reaction process can be controlled by tuning the surface chemistry with organic ligands. Functionalization of Au NPs (Ø ≈ 9-11 nm) with 1-octadecanethiol (ODT) led to the formation of ODT-Au@Pd NPs with a closed Pd shell through a strong ligand-metal binding, which is accompanied by a redistribution of the electron density. Experiments with varied Pd content revealed surface epitaxial growth of Pd on Au. For OAm-Pd and ODT-Pd seed particles, faceted, Au-rich domain NPs and impeded core-shell NPs were obtained, respectively. This is related to the high surface energy of the small Pd seed particles (⌀ ≈ 5-7 nm). The metal distribution of all bimetallic NPs was analyzed by extended (aberration-corrected) transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM, HAADF-STEM, EDX mapping, ED). The Au and Pd NPs, as well as the ODT-Au@Pd and OAm-Pd@Au heteroparticles, catalyze the reduction of 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol with borohydride. The catalytic activity is dictated by the particle structure. OAm-Au@Pd heteroparticles with faceted Au domains had the highest activity because of a mixed Au-Pd surface structure, while ODT-Au@Pd NPs, where the active Au core is covered by a Pd shell, had the lowest activity.

Molybdenum Oxide Nitrides of the Mo2(O,N,□)5 Type: On the Way to Mo2O5.

Blue-colored molybdenum oxide nitrides of the Mo2(O,N,□)5 type were synthesized by direct nitridation of commercially available molybdenum trioxide with a mixture of gaseous ammonia and oxygen. Chemical composition, crystal structure, and stability of the obtained and hitherto unknown compounds are studied extensively. The average oxidation state of +5 for molybdenum is proven by Mo K near-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy; the magnetic behavior is in agreement with compounds exhibiting MoVO6 units. The new materials are stable up to ∼773 K in an inert gas atmosphere. At higher temperatures, decomposition is observed. X-ray and neutron powder diffraction, electron diffraction, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy reveal the structure to be related to VNb9O24.9-type phases, however, with severe disorder hampering full structure determination. Still, the results demonstrate the possibility of a future synthesis of the potential binary oxide Mo2O5. On the basis of these findings, a tentative suggestion on the crystal structure of the potential compound Mo2O5, backed by electronic-structure and phonon calculations from first principles, is given.

Solving the Hydrogen and Lithium Substructure of Poly(triazine imide)/LiCl Using NMR Crystallography.

Poly(triazine imide) with incorporated lithium chloride has recently attracted substantial attention due to its photocatalytic activity for water splitting. However, an apparent H/Li disorder prevents the delineation of structure-property relationships, for example, with respect to band-gap tuning. Herein, we show that through a combination of one- and two-dimensional, multinuclear solid-state NMR spectroscopy, chemical modelling, automated electron diffraction tomography, and an analysis based on X-ray pair distribution functions, it is finally possible to resolve the H/Li substructure. In each cavity, one hydrogen atom is bound to a bridging nitrogen atom, while a second one protonates a triazine ring. The two lithium ions within each cavity are positioned between two nitrogen atoms of neighbouring triazine rings. The thereby induced local dipole moments cause slight buckling of the framework and lateral displacements of the Cl- ions at a coherence length below 2 nm. Nevertheless, the average structure conforms to space group P21 21 21 . In this way, we demonstrate that, in particular, the above-mentioned techniques allow for smart interplay in delineating the real structure of PTI/LiCl.

Anhydrous Amorphous Calcium Oxalate Nanoparticles from Ionic Liquids: Stable Crystallization Intermediates in the Formation of Whewellite.

The mechanisms by which amorphous intermediates transform into crystalline materials are not well understood. To test the viability and the limits of the classical crystallization, new model systems for crystallization are needed. With a view to elucidating the formation of an amorphous precursor and its subsequent crystallization, the crystallization of calcium oxalate, a biomineral widely occurring in plants, is investigated. Amorphous calcium oxalate (ACO) precipitated from an aqueous solution is described as a hydrated metastable phase, as often observed during low-temperature inorganic synthesis and biomineralization. In the presence of water, ACO rapidly transforms into hydrated whewellite (monohydrate, CaC2 O4 ⋅H2 O, COM). The problem of fast crystallization kinetics is circumvented by synthesizing anhydrous ACO from a pure ionic liquid (IL-ACO) for the first time. IL-ACO is stable in the absence of water at ambient temperature. It is obtained as well-defined, non-agglomerated particles with diameters of 15-20 nm. When exposed to water, it crystallizes to give (hydrated) COM through a dissolution/recrystallization mechanism.

Structural Characterisation of Complex Layered Double Hydroxides and TGA-GC-MS Study on Thermal Response and Carbonate Contamination in Nitrate- and Organic-Exchanged Hydrotalcites.

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are versatile materials used for intercalating bioactive molecules in the fields of pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmetics, with the purpose of protecting them from degradation, enhancing their water solubility to increase bioavailability and improving their pharmacokinetic properties and formulation stability. Moreover, LDHs are used in various technological applications to improve stability and processability. The crystal chemistry of hydrotalcite-like compounds was investigated by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), automated electron diffraction tomography (ADT) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)-GC-MS to shed light on the mechanisms involved in ion exchange and absorption of contaminants, mainly carbonate anions. For the first time, ADT allowed a structural model of LDH_NO3 to be obtained from experiment, shedding light on the conformation of nitrate inside LDH and on the loss of crystallinity due to the layer morphology. The ADT analysis of a hybrid LDH sample (LDH_EUS) clearly revealed an increase in defectivity in this material. XRPD demonstrated that the presence of carbonate can influence the intercalation of organic molecules into LDH, since CO3 -contaminated samples tend to adopt d spacings that are approximate multiples of the d spacing of LDH_CO3 . TGA-GC-MS allowed intercalated and surface- adsorbed organic molecules to be distinguished and quantified, the presence and amount of carbonate to be confirmed, especially at low concentrations (<2 wt %), and the different types and strengths of adsorption to be classified with respect to the temperature of elimination.

Total-scattering pair-distribution function of organic material from powder electron diffraction data.

This paper shows that pair-distribution function (PDF) analyses can be carried out on organic and organometallic compounds from powder electron diffraction data. Different experimental setups are demonstrated, including selected area electron diffraction and nanodiffraction in transmission electron microscopy or nanodiffraction in scanning transmission electron microscopy modes. The methods were demonstrated on organometallic complexes (chlorinated and unchlorinated copper phthalocyanine) and on purely organic compounds (quinacridone). The PDF curves from powder electron diffraction data, called ePDF, are in good agreement with PDF curves determined from X-ray powder data demonstrating that the problems of obtaining kinematical scattering data and avoiding beam damage of the sample are possible to resolve.

Evidence of noncentrosymmetry of human tooth hydroxyapatite crystals.

Herein, we investigate human single hydroxyapatite crystals (enamel and dentine) by convergent-beam electron diffraction (CBED) and automated electron-diffraction tomography (ADT). The CBED pattern shows the absence of the mirror plane perpendicular to the c axis leading to the P63 space group instead of the P63 /m space group considered for larger-scale crystals, this is confirmed by ADT. This experimental evidence is of prime importance for understanding the morphogenesis and the architectural organization of calcified tissues.

Three-dimensional electron diffraction on clinkers: the belite α'H incommensurate modulated structure.

Traditional X-ray methods are extensively applied to commercial cement samples in order to determine their physical and chemical properties. Powder patterns are routinely used to quantify the composition of these phase mixtures, but structure determination becomes difficult because of reflection overlapping caused by the high number of different crystal structures. The fast-growing 3D electron diffraction technique and its related automated acquisition protocols arise as a potentially very interesting tool for the cement industry, since they enable the fast and systematic acquisition of diffraction data from individual particles. In this context, electron diffraction has been used in the investigation of the different crystalline phases present in various commercial clinkers for cement. Automated data collection procedures and subsequent data processing have enabled the structural characterization of the different crystal structures from which the α'H polymorph of Ca2SiO4 (belite) exhibited satellite reflections. Its average crystal structure has been known since 1971 and satellite reflections have been reported previously, yet the modulation was never fully described by means of the superspace formalism. Here, the incommensurately modulated structure is solved and refined using harmonic and crenel functions in the superspace group Pnma(α00)0ss, showing the potential of 3D electron diffraction for systematic crystallographic characterizations of cement. A full description of the different belite polymorphs is provided considering this modulated structure.

Crystal structures of two new high-pressure oxynitrides with composition SnGe4N4O4, from single-crystal electron diffraction.

SnGe4N4O4 was synthesized at high pressure (16 and 20 GPa) and high temperature (1200 and 1500°C) in a large-volume press. Powder X-ray diffraction experiments using synchrotron radiation indicate that the derived samples are mixtures of known and unknown phases. However, the powder X-ray diffraction patterns are not sufficient for structural characterization. Transmission electron microscopy studies reveal crystals of several hundreds of nanometres in size with different chemical composition. Among them, crystals of a previously unknown phase with stoichiometry SnGe4N4O4 were detected and investigated using automated diffraction tomography (ADT), a three-dimensional electron diffraction method. Via ADT, the crystal structure could be determined from single nanocrystals in space group P63mc, exhibiting a nolanite-type structure. This was confirmed by density functional theory calculations and atomic resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy images. In one of the syntheses runs a rhombohedral 6R polytype of SnGe4N4O4 could be found together with the nolanite-type SnGe4N4O4. The structure of this polymorph was solved as well using ADT.

Hierarchical composition of the axial filament from spicules of the siliceous sponge Suberites domuncula: from biosilica-synthesizing nanofibrils to structure- and morphology-guiding triangular stems.

The major structural and enzymatically active protein in spicules from siliceous sponges, e.g., for Suberites domuncula studied here, is silicatein. Silicatein has been established to be the key enzyme that catalyzes the formation of biosilica, a polymer that represents the inorganic scaffold for the spicule. In the present study, it is shown, by application of high-resolution transmission and scanning transmission electron microscopy that, during the initial phase of spicule synthesis, nanofibrils with a diameter of around 10 nm are formed that comprise bundles of between 10 and 20 nanofibrils. In intracellular vacuoles, silicasomes, the nanofibrils form polar structures with a pointed tip and a blunt end. In a time-dependent manner, these nanofibrillar bundles become embedded into a Si-rich matrix, indicative for the formation of biosilica via silicatein molecules that form the nanofibrils. These biosilicified nanofibrillar bundles become extruded from the intracellular space, where they are located in the silicasomes, to the extracellular environment by an evagination process, during which a cellular protrusion forms the axial canal in the growing spicule. The nanofibrillar bundles condense and progressively form the axial filament that becomes localized in the extracellular space. It is concluded that the silicatein-composing nanofibrils act not only as enzymatic silica bio-condensing platforms but also as a structure-giving guidance for the growing spicule.

Iron oxide/hydroxide nanoparticles with negatively charged shells show increased uptake in Caco-2 cells.

The absorption of commonly used ferrous iron salts from intestinal segments at neutral to slightly alkaline pH is low, mainly because soluble ferrous iron is easily oxidized to poorly soluble ferric iron and because ferrous iron, but not ferric iron, is carried by the divalent metal transporter DMT-1. Moreover, ferrous iron frequently causes gastrointestinal side effects. Iron hydroxide nanoparticles with neutral and hydrophilic carbohydrate shells are alternatively used to ferrous salts. In these formulations gastrointestinal side effects are rare because hundreds of ferric iron atoms are safely packed in nanoscaled cores surrounded by the solubilizing shell; nevertheless, iron bioavailability is even worse compared to ferrous salts. In this study the cell uptake of iron hydroxide and iron oxide nanoparticles (FeONP) with negatively charged shells of different chemical types and sizes was compared to the uptake of those with neutral hydrophilic shells, ferrous sulfate and ferric chloride. The nanoparticle uptake was measured in Caco-2 cells with the iron detecting ferrozine method and visualized by transmission electron microscopy. The toxicity was evaluated using the MTT assay. For nanoparticles with a negatively charged shell the iron uptake was about 40 times higher compared to those with neutral hydrophilic carbohydrate shell or ferric chloride and in the same range as ferrous sulfate. However, in contrast to ferrous sulfate, nanoparticles with negatively charged shells showed no toxicity. Two different uptake mechanisms were proposed: diffusion for hydroxide nanoparticles with neutral hydrophilic shell and adsorptive endocytosis for nanoparticles with negatively charged shells. It needs to be determined whether iron hydroxide nanoparticles with negatively charged shells also show improved bioavailability in iron-deficient patients compared to iron hydroxide nanoparticles with a neutral hydrophilic shell, which exist in the market today.