Role of hydrogen sulfide in paramyxovirus infections.

UNLABELLED: Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an endogenous gaseous mediator that has gained increasing recognition as an important player in modulating acute and chronic inflammatory diseases. However, its role in virus-induced lung inflammation is currently unknown. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of upper and lower respiratory tract infections in children for which no vaccine or effective treatment is available. Using the slow-releasing H2S donor GYY4137 and propargylglycin (PAG), an inhibitor of cystathionine-γ-lyase (CSE), a key enzyme that produces intracellular H2S, we found that RSV infection led to a reduced ability to generate and maintain intracellular H2S levels in airway epithelial cells (AECs). Inhibition of CSE with PAG resulted in increased viral replication and chemokine secretion. On the other hand, treatment of AECs with the H2S donor GYY4137 reduced proinflammatory mediator production and significantly reduced viral replication, even when administered several hours after viral absorption. GYY4137 also significantly reduced replication and inflammatory chemokine production induced by human metapneumovirus (hMPV) and Nipah virus (NiV), suggesting a broad inhibitory effect of H2S on paramyxovirus infections. GYY4137 treatment had no effect on RSV genome replication or viral mRNA and protein synthesis, but it inhibited syncytium formation and virus assembly/release. GYY4137 inhibition of proinflammatory gene expression occurred by modulation of the activation of the key transcription factors nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) at a step subsequent to their nuclear translocation. H2S antiviral and immunoregulatory properties could represent a novel treatment strategy for paramyxovirus infections. IMPORTANCE: RSV is a global health concern, causing significant morbidity and economic losses as well as mortality in developing countries. After decades of intensive research, no vaccine or effective treatment, with the exception of immunoprophylaxis, is available for this infection as well as for other important respiratory mucosal viruses. This study identifies hydrogen sulfide as a novel cellular mediator that can modulate viral replication and proinflammatory gene expression, both important determinants of lung injury in respiratory viral infections, with potential for rapid translation of such findings into novel therapeutic approaches for viral bronchiolitis and pneumonia.

Antioxidant mimetics modulate oxidative stress and cellular signaling in airway epithelial cells infected with respiratory syncytial virus.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is one of the most common causes of bronchiolitis and pneumonia among infants and young children worldwide. In previous investigations, we have shown that RSV infection induces rapid generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which modulate viral-induced cellular signaling, and downregulation of antioxidant enzyme (AOE) expression, resulting in oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo, which plays a pathogenetic role in RSV-induced lung disease. In this study, we determined whether pharmacological intervention with synthetic catalytic scavengers could reduce RSV-induced proinflammatory gene expression and oxidative cell damage in an in vitro model of infection. Treatment of airway epithelial cells (AECs) with the salen-manganese complexes EUK-8 or EUK-189, which possess superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase activity, strongly reduced RSV-induced ROS formation by increasing cellular AOE enzymatic activity and levels of the lipid peroxidation products F(2)-8-isoprostane and malondialdehyde, which are markers of oxidative stress. Treatment of AECs with AOE mimetics also significantly inhibited RSV-induced cytokine and chemokine secretion and activation of the transcription factors nuclear factor-κB and interferon regulatory factor-3, which orchestrate proinflammatory gene expression. Both EUKs were able to reduce viral replication, when used at high doses. These results suggest that increasing antioxidant cellular capacities can significantly impact RSV-associated oxidative cell damage and cellular signaling and could represent a novel therapeutic approach in modulating virus-induced lung disease.

Human metapneumovirus infection of airway epithelial cells is associated with changes in core metabolic pathways.

Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is an important cause of acute lower respiratory tract infections in infants, elderly and immunocompromised individuals. Ingenuity pathway analysis of microarrays data showed that 20% of genes affected by hMPV infection of airway epithelial cells (AECs) were related to metabolism. We found that levels of the glycolytic pathway enzymes hexokinase 2, pyruvate kinase M2, and lactate dehydrogenase A were significantly upregulated in normal human AECs upon hMPV infection, as well as levels of enzymes belonging to the hexosamine biosynthetic and glycosylation pathways. On the other hand, expression of the majority of the enzymes belonging to the tricarboxylic acid cycle was significantly diminished. Inhibition of hexokinase 2 and of the glycosylating enzyme O-linked N-acetylglucosamine transferase led to a significant reduction in hMPV titer, indicating that metabolic changes induced by hMPV infection play a major role during the virus life cycle, and could be explored as potential antiviral targets.

Role of Hydrogen Sulfide in NRF2- and Sirtuin-Dependent Maintenance of Cellular Redox Balance.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has arisen as a critical gasotransmitter signaling molecule modulating cellular biological events related to health and diseases in heart, brain, liver, vascular systems and immune response. Three enzymes mediate the endogenous production of H2S: cystathione ß-synthase (CBS), cystathione γ-lyase (CSE) and 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (3-MST). CBS and CSE localizations are organ-specific. 3-MST is a mitochondrial and cytosolic enzyme. The generation of H2S is firmly regulated by these enzymes under normal physiological conditions. Recent studies have highlighted the role of H2S in cellular redox homeostasis, as it displays significant antioxidant properties. H2S exerts antioxidant effects through several mechanisms, such as quenching reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), by modulating cellular levels of glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin (Trx-1) or increasing expression of antioxidant enzymes (AOE), by activating the transcription factor nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (NRF2). H2S also influences the activity of the histone deacetylase protein family of sirtuins, which plays an important role in inhibiting oxidative stress in cardiomyocytes and during the aging process by modulating AOE gene expression. This review focuses on the role of H2S in NRF2 and sirtuin signaling pathways as they are related to cellular redox homeostasis.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection Changes Cargo Composition of Exosome Released from Airway Epithelial Cells.

Exosomes are microvesicles known to carry biologically active molecules, including RNA, DNA and proteins. Viral infections can induce profound changes in exosome composition, and exosomes have been implicated in viral transmission and pathogenesis. No information is current available regarding exosome composition and function during infection with Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), the most important cause of lower respiratory tract infections in children. In this study, we characterized exosomes released from RSV-infected lung carcinoma-derived A549 cells. RNA deep sequencing revealed that RSV exosomes contain a diverse range of RNA species like messenger and ribosomal RNA fragments, as well as small noncoding RNAs, in a proportion different from exosomes isolated from mock-infected cells. We observed that both RNA and protein signatures of RSV were present in exosomes, however, they were not able to establish productive infection in uninfected cells. Exosomes isolated from RSV-infected cells were able to activate innate immune response by inducing cytokine and chemokine release from human monocytes and airway epithelial cells. These data suggest that exosomes may play an important role in pathogenesis or protection against disease, therefore understating their role in RSV infection may open new avenues for target identification and development of novel therapeutics.

Respiratory syncytial virus induces NRF2 degradation through a promyelocytic leukemia protein - ring finger protein 4 dependent pathway.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most important cause of viral acute respiratory tract infections and hospitalizations in children, for which no vaccine or specific treatments are available. RSV causes airway mucosa inflammation and cellular oxidative damage by triggering production of reactive oxygen species and by inhibiting at the same time expression of antioxidant enzymes, via degradation of the transcription factor NF-E2-related factor 2 (NRF2). RSV infection induces NRF2 deacetylation, ubiquitination, and degradation through a proteasome-dependent pathway. Although degradation via KEAP1 is the most common mechanism, silencing KEAP1 expression did not rescue NRF2 levels during RSV infection. We found that RSV-induced NRF2 degradation occurs in an SUMO-specific E3 ubiquitin ligase - RING finger protein 4 (RNF4)-dependent manner. NRF2 is progressively SUMOylated in RSV infection and either blocking SUMOylation or silencing RNF4 expression rescued both NRF2 nuclear levels and transcriptional activity. RNF4 associates with promyelocytic leukemia - nuclear bodies (PML-NBs). RSV infection induces the expression of PML and PML-NBs formation in an interferon (INF)-dependent manner and also induces NRF2 - PMN-NBs association. Inhibition of PML-NB formation by blocking IFN pathway or silencing PML expression resulted in a significant reduction of RSV-associated NRF2 degradation and increased antioxidant enzyme expression, identifying the RNF4-PML pathway as a key regulator of antioxidant defenses in the course of viral infection.

RETRACTED: Immunization of mice with autolysin adhesin (Aaa) provides protection against Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis infection.

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RETRACTED: Constitutive intracellular expression and characterization of recombinant streptokinase in pichia pastoris expression system.

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WITHDRAWN: Constitutive expression and characterization of Hepatitis B surface antigen purified by metal affinity precipitation.

The paper entitled "Constitutive expression and characterization of Hepatitis B surface antigen purified by metal affinity precipitation", which was published online on 19 May 2006, was withdrawn at the author's request.

Role of dietary antioxidants in human metapneumovirus infection.

Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is a major cause of respiratory tract infections in children, elderly and immunocompromised hosts, for which no vaccine or treatment are currently available. Oxidative stress and inflammatory responses represent important pathogenic mechanism(s) of hMPV infection. Here, we explored the potential protective role of dietary antioxidants in hMPV infection. Treatment of airway epithelial cells with resveratrol and quercetin during hMPV infection significantly reduced cellular oxidative damage, inflammatory mediator secretion and viral replication, without affecting viral gene transcription and protein synthesis, indicating that inhibition of viral replication occurred at the level of viral assembly and/or release. Modulation of proinflammatory mediator expression occurred through the inhibition of transcription factor nuclear factor (NF)-κB and interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-3 binding to their cognate site of endogenous gene promoters. Our results indicate the use of dietary antioxidants as an effective treatment approach for modulating hMPV induced lung oxidative damage and inflammation.

Respiratory syncytial virus infection down-regulates antioxidant enzyme expression by triggering deacetylation-proteasomal degradation of Nrf2.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most important cause of viral acute respiratory tract infections and hospitalizations in children, for which no vaccine or treatment is available. RSV infection in cells, mice, and children leads to rapid generation of reactive oxygen species, which are associated with oxidative stress and lung damage, due to a significant decrease in the expression of airway antioxidant enzymes (AOEs). Oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of RSV-induced lung disease, as antioxidants ameliorate clinical disease and inflammation in vivo. The aim of this study is to investigate the unknown mechanism(s) of virus-induced inhibition of AOE expression. RSV infection is shown to induce a progressive reduction in nuclear and total cellular levels of the transcription factor NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), resulting in decreased binding to endogenous AOE gene promoters and decreased AOE expression. RSV induces Nrf2 deacetylation and degradation via the proteasome pathway in vitro and in vivo. Histone deacetylase and proteasome inhibitors block Nrf2 degradation and increase Nrf2 binding to AOE endogenous promoters, resulting in increased AOE expression. Known inducers of Nrf2 are able to increase Nrf2 activation and subsequent AOE expression during RSV infection in vitro and in vivo, with significant amelioration of oxidative stress. This is the first study to investigate the mechanism(s) of virus-induced inhibition of AOE expression. RSV-induced inhibition of Nrf2 activation, due to deacetylation and proteasomal degradation, could be targeted for therapeutic intervention aimed to increase airway antioxidant capacity during infection.

Respiratory Viral Infections and Subversion of Cellular Antioxidant Defenses.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation is part of normal cellular aerobic metabolism, due to respiration and oxidation of nutrients in order to generate energy. Low levels of ROS are involved in cellular signaling and are well controlled by the cellular antioxidant defense system. Elevated levels of ROS generation due to pollutants, toxins and radiation exposure, as well as infections, are associated with oxidative stress causing cellular damage. Several respiratory viruses, including respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), human metapneumovirus (hMPV) and influenza, induce increased ROS formation, both intracellularly and as a result of increased inflammatory cell recruitment at the site of infection. They also reduce antioxidant enzyme (AOE) levels and/or activity, leading to unbalanced oxidative-antioxidant status and subsequent oxidative cell damage. Expression of several AOE is controlled by the activation of the nuclear transcription factor NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), through binding to the antioxidant responsive element (ARE) present in the AOE gene promoters. While exposure to several pro-oxidant stimuli usually leads to Nrf2 activation and upregulation of AOE expression, respiratory viral infections are associated with inhibition of AOE expression/activity, which in the case of RSV and hMPV is associated with reduced Nrf2 nuclear localization, decreased cellular levels and reduced ARE-dependent gene transcription. Therefore, administration of antioxidant mimetics or Nrf2 inducers represents potential viable therapeutic approaches to viral-induced diseases, such as respiratory infections and other infections associated with decreased cellular antioxidant capacity.

Interplay between MEK-ERK signaling, cyclin D1, and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 regulates cell cycle reentry and apoptosis of neurons.

In response to neurotoxic signals, postmitotic neurons make attempts to reenter the cell cycle, which results in their death. Although several cell cycle proteins have been implicated in cell cycle-related neuronal apoptosis (CRNA), the molecular mechanisms that underlie this important event are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that neurotoxic agents such as ß-amyloid peptide cause aberrant activation of mitogen-activated kinase kinase (MEK)-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling, which promotes the entry of neurons into the cell cycle, resulting in their apoptosis. The MEK-ERK pathway regulates CRNA by elevating the levels of cyclin D1. The increase in cyclin D1 attenuates the activation of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (cdk5) by its neuronal activator p35. The inhibition of p35-cdk5 activity results in enhanced MEK-ERK signaling, leading to CRNA. These studies highlight how neurotoxic signals reprogram and alter the neuronal signaling machinery to promote their entry into the cell cycle, which eventually leads to neuronal cell death.

Expression of hepatitis B surface antigen in Saccharomyces cerevisiae utilizing glyceraldeyhyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase promoter of Pichia pastoris.

An expression vector constructed from genes of Pichia pastoris was applied for heterologous gene expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen was synthesized by cloning hepatitis B virus 'S' gene under the control of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAP) promoter of Pichia pastoris in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Hepatitis B surface antigen was constitutively expressed, was stable and exhibited approximately 20-22 nm particle formation. Stability and absence of toxicity to the host with the expression vector indicates the expression system can be applied for large-scale production.