The role of circadian clock gene Arntl in the winter depression-like behavior in melatonin-proficient female CBA/N mice.

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD), also known as winter depression, is a subtype of depression typically manifesting in winter. Typical symptoms of SAD, such as an increased need for sleep and carbohydrate cravings associated with increased appetite and weight, are distinct from those of major depression, and the underlying mechanisms of SAD remain unclear. Although laboratory mice are generally considered non-seasonal animals, we observed depression-like behaviors in melatonin-proficient female CBA/N mice maintained under winter-mimicking conditions. Transcriptome analysis of the brains of CBA/N mice maintained under winter- and summer-mimicking conditions revealed changes in the expression of circadian clock genes, including Arntl (also known as Bmal1). We generated Arntl-deficient, melatonin-proficient CBA/N mice using the speed congenic method to examine the role of Arntl in depressive behavior. The tail suspension test in these mice revealed a depressive phenotype. These results suggested that the circadian clock gene Arntl may be involved in winter depression-like behavior.

CaMKII is essential for the cellular clock and coupling between morning and evening behavioral rhythms.

Daily behavioral rhythms in mammals are governed by the central circadian clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The behavioral rhythms persist even in constant darkness, with a stable activity time due to coupling between two oscillators that determine the morning and evening activities. Accumulating evidence supports a prerequisite role for Ca(2+) in the robust oscillation of the SCN, yet the underlying molecular mechanism remains elusive. Here, we show that Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) activity is essential for not only the cellular oscillation but also synchronization among oscillators in the SCN. A kinase-dead mutation in mouse CaMKIIα weakened the behavioral rhythmicity and elicited decoupling between the morning and evening activity rhythms, sometimes causing arrhythmicity. In the mutant SCN, the right and left nuclei showed uncoupled oscillations. Cellular and biochemical analyses revealed that Ca(2+)-calmodulin-CaMKII signaling contributes to activation of E-box-dependent gene expression through promoting dimerization of circadian locomotor output cycles kaput (CLOCK) and brain and muscle Arnt-like protein 1 (BMAL1). These results demonstrate a dual role of CaMKII as a component of cell-autonomous clockwork and as a synchronizer integrating circadian behavioral activities.

[Cognitive Function and Calcium. Ca2+-dependent regulatory mechanism of circadian clock oscillation and its relevance to neuronal function].

Circadian clock generates a variety of biological rhythms such as sleep/wake cycles and blood hormone rhythms. The circadian clock also bolsters daily mental activities. In fact, abnormalities of the circadian rhythms are found in several neurological disorders. The circadian clock has two important functions: (i) a cell-autonomous oscillatory function and (ii) a phase-adjusting function that synchronizes the clock oscillation with environmental cycling conditions such as light/dark cycle. Behavioral rhythms are controlled by the central clock in hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The central clock orchestrates peripheral clocks in the other tissues via neuronal connection and/or actions of humoral factors. The molecular mechanism of the cell-autonomous clock is based on transcriptional feedback regulation of clock genes by their encoded products. Ca2+ is essential for not only the light response of the clock but also the cell autonomous oscillation mechanism. This article provides an overview of recent progress in studies of Ca2+-dependent regulatory mechanism of the molecular clockwork.

Singularity response reveals entrainment properties in mammalian circadian clock.

Entrainment is characterized by phase response curves (PRCs), which provide a summary of responses to perturbations at each circadian phase. The synchronization of mammalian circadian clocks is accomplished through the receipt of a variety of inputs from both internal and external time cues. A comprehensive comparison of PRCs for various stimuli in each tissue is required. Herein, we demonstrate that PRCs in mammalian cells can be characterized using a recently developed estimation method based on singularity response (SR), which represents the response of desynchronized cellular clocks. We confirmed that PRCs can be reconstructed using single SR measurements and quantified response properties for various stimuli in several cell lines. SR analysis reveals that the phase and amplitude after resetting are distinguishable among stimuli. SRs in tissue slice cultures reveal tissue-specific entrainment properties. These results demonstrate that SRs can be employed to unveil entrainment mechanisms with diverse stimuli in multiscale mammalian clocks.

Cold-induced suspension and resetting of Ca2+ and transcriptional rhythms in the suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons.

Does the circadian clock keep running under such hypothermic states as daily torpor and hibernation? This fundamental question has been a research subject for decades but has remained unsettled. We addressed this subject by monitoring the circadian rhythm of clock gene transcription and intracellular Ca2+ in the neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), master circadian clock, in vitro under a cold environment. We discovered that the transcriptional and Ca2+ rhythms are maintained at 22°C-28°C, but suspended at 15°C, accompanied by a large Ca2+ increase. Rewarming instantly resets the Ca2+ rhythms, while transcriptional rhythms reach a stable phase after the transient state and recover their phase relationship with the Ca2+ rhythm. We conclude that SCN neurons remain functional under moderate hypothermia but stop ticking in deep hypothermia and that the rhythms reset after rewarming. These data also indicate that stable Ca2+ oscillation precedes clock gene transcriptional rhythms in SCN neurons.

Network-driven intracellular cAMP coordinates circadian rhythm in the suprachiasmatic nucleus.

The mammalian central circadian clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), coordinates the timing of physiology and behavior to local time cues. In the SCN, second messengers, such as cAMP and Ca2+, are suggested to be involved in the input and/or output of the molecular circadian clock. However, the functional roles of second messengers and their dynamics in the SCN remain largely unclear. In the present study, we visualized the spatiotemporal patterns of circadian rhythms of second messengers and neurotransmitter release in the SCN. Here, we show that neuronal activity regulates the rhythmic release of vasoactive intestinal peptides from the SCN, which drives the circadian rhythms of intracellular cAMP in the SCN. Furthermore, optical manipulation of intracellular cAMP levels in the SCN shifts molecular and behavioral circadian rhythms. Together, our study demonstrates that intracellular cAMP is a key molecule in the organization of the SCN circadian neuronal network.

Real time monitoring of cold Ca2+ dependent transcription and its modulation by NCX inhibitors.

Real-time monitoring of cellular temperature responses is an important technique in thermal biology and drug development. Recent study identified that Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX)-dependent Ca2+ influx transduces cold signals to circadian clock in mammalian cultured cells. The finding raised an idea that cellular responses to the cold signals can be analyzed by monitoring of clock gene expression. We found that Per1 and Per2 were up-regulated after culture at 27 °C compared to 37 °C in Rat-1 fibroblasts. In order to monitor cold-Ca2+-dependent transcription in living cells, we developed a luciferase-based real-time reporting system by using Per1 promoter, Per2 promoter, Ca2+/cAMP-response elements (CRE) or NFAT-binding elements. We found that benzyloxyphenyl NCX inhibitor KB-R7943 and SN-6, but not SEA-0400 or YM-244769 inhibited the cold induction of Per2. Our study established a real-time monitoring system for cold Ca2+ signaling which can be applied to evaluation of drugs.

Transcriptional repressor TIEG1 regulates Bmal1 gene through GC box and controls circadian clockwork.

The circadian clock controls daily rhythms in many physiologic processes, and the clock oscillation is regulated by external time cues such as light, temperature, and feeding. In mammals, the transcriptional regulation of clock genes underlies the clock oscillatory mechanism, which is operative even in cultured fibroblasts. We previously demonstrated that glucose treatment of rat-1 fibroblasts evokes circadian expression of clock genes with a rapid induction of Tieg1 transcript encoding a transcriptional repressor. Here, we found diurnal variation of both Tieg1 mRNA and nuclear TIEG1 protein levels in the mouse liver with their peaks at day/night transition and midnight, respectively. In vitro experiments showed that TIEG1 bound to Bmal1 gene promoter and repressed its transcriptional activity through two juxtaposed GC boxes near the transcription initiation site. The GC box/TIEG1-mediated repression of Bmal1 promoter was additive to RORE-dependent repression by REV-ERBalpha, a well-known repressor of Bmal1 gene. In cell-based real-time assay, siRNA-mediated knock-down of TIEG1 caused period shortening of cellular bioluminescence rhythms driven by Bmal1-luciferase and Per2-luciferase reporters. These findings highlight an active role of TIEG1 in the normal clock oscillation and GC box-mediated regulation of Bmal1 transcription.

Na+/Ca2+ exchanger mediates cold Ca2+ signaling conserved for temperature-compensated circadian rhythms.

Circadian rhythms are based on biochemical oscillations generated by clock genes/proteins, which independently evolved in animals, fungi, plants, and cyanobacteria. Temperature compensation of the oscillation speed is a common feature of the circadian clocks, but the evolutionary-conserved mechanism has been unclear. Here, we show that Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) mediates cold-responsive Ca2+ signaling important for the temperature-compensated oscillation in mammalian cells. In response to temperature decrease, NCX elevates intracellular Ca2+, which activates Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and accelerates transcriptional oscillations of clock genes. The cold-responsive Ca2+ signaling is conserved among mice, Drosophila, and Arabidopsis The mammalian cellular rhythms and Drosophila behavioral rhythms were severely attenuated by NCX inhibition, indicating essential roles of NCX in both temperature compensation and autonomous oscillation. NCX also contributes to the temperature-compensated transcriptional rhythms in cyanobacterial clock. Our results suggest that NCX-mediated Ca2+ signaling is a common mechanism underlying temperature-compensated circadian rhythms both in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

Modulation of circadian clock by crude drug extracts used in Japanese Kampo medicine.

Circadian rhythm is an approximately 24 h endogenous biological rhythm. Chronic disruption of the circadian clock leads to an increased risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Hence, it is important to develop circadian clock modulators. Natural organisms are a good source of several medicines currently in use. Crude drugs used in Japanese traditional Kampo medicine or folk medicines are an excellent source for drug discovery. Furthermore, identifying new functions for existing drugs, known as the drug repositioning approach, is a popular and powerful tool. In this study, we screened 137 crude drug extracts to act as circadian clock modulators in human U2OS cells stably expressing the clock reporter Bmal1-dLuc, and approximately 12% of these modulated the circadian rhythm. We further examined the effects of several crude drugs in Rat-1 fibroblasts stably expressing Per2-luc, explant culture of lung from Per2::Luciferase knockin mice, and zebrafish larvae in vivo. Notably, more than half of the major ingredients of these crude drugs were reported to target AKT and its relevant signaling pathways. As expected, analysis of the major ingredients targeting AKT signaling confirmed the circadian clock-modulating effects. Furthermore, activator and inhibitor of AKT, and triple knockdown of AKT isoforms by siRNA also modulated the circadian rhythm. This study, by employing the drug repositioning approach, shows that Kampo medicines are a useful source for the identification of underlying mechanisms of circadian clock modulators and could potentially be used in the treatment of circadian clock disruption.

A small-molecule DS44170716 inhibits Ca2+-induced mitochondrial permeability transition.

Mitochondria are involved in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. Ca2+ uptake is one of the important functions of the organelle for maintenance of cellular Ca2+ homeostasis. In pathological conditions such as ischemia reperfusion injury, Ca2+ overload into mitochondria induces mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), a critical step for cell death. Because inhibition of MPT is a promising approach to protecting cells and organs, it is important for drug discovery to identify novel chemicals or mechanisms to inhibit MPT. Here we report upon a small-molecule compound DS44170716 that inhibits Ca2+-induced MPT in rat liver isolated mitochondria. DS44170716 protects human liver HepG2 cells from Ca2+-induced death with a level of protection similar to cyclosporin A (CsA). The inhibitory mechanism of DS44170716 against MPT is independent on PPIF, a target of CsA. DS44170716 blocks Ca2+ flux into the mitochondria by decreasing mitochondrial membrane potential, while potently inhibiting mitochondrial complex III activities and weakly inhibiting complex IV and V activities. Similarly, complex III inhibitor antimycin A, complex IV inhibitor KCN or complex V inhibitor oligomycin inhibits Ca2+ uptake of isolated mitochondria. These results show that DS44170716 is a novel class inhibitor of MPT by blocking of mitochondrial complexes and Ca2+-overload into mitochondria.

DS16570511 is a small-molecule inhibitor of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter.

In cardiac myocytes, regulation of mitochondrial Ca2+ is important for cellular signaling and cardiac contraction. Ca2+ entry into the mitochondria is mediated by a highly selective Ca2+ channel called the mitochondrial calcium uniporter, which consists of a pore-forming subunit MCU and regulatory subunits such as MICU1. Although pharmacological regulation of the mitochondrial Ca2+ influx is a promising approach to controlling the cellular functions, a cell-permeable and specific inhibitor of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter has not yet been developed. Here, we identify a novel cell-permeable inhibitor of the uniporter by a high-throughput screening of 120 000 small-molecule compounds. In our study, DS16570511 dose-dependently inhibited serum-induced mitochondrial Ca2+ influx in HEK293A cells with an IC50 of 7 µM. DS16570511 inhibited Ca2+ uptake of isolated mitochondria from human cells, rat heart and pig heart. Overexpression of hMCU or hMICU1 in HEK293A cells increased mitochondrial Ca2+ influx, and the increases were completely suppressed by the pretreatment with DS16570511. DS16570511 also blocks mitochondrial Ca2+ overload in a Langendorff perfused beating rat heart. Interestingly, DS16570511 increased cardiac contractility without affecting heart rate in the perfused heart. These results show that DS16570511 is a novel cell-permeable inhibitor of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter and applicable for control of the cardiac functions.

Effects of 3-year denosumab treatment on hip structure in Japanese postmenopausal women and men with osteoporosis.

Denosumab, a human monoclonal antibody against RANK ligand, is shown to have strong anti-fracture effects in Japanese osteoporosis patients. However, there have been no data showing actions on Japanese bone architecture. Here we show that denosumab continuously improves several geometrical parameters calculated by hip structural analysis for 3 years. Compared to placebo, denosumab significantly increased bone mineral density, cortical thickness and cross sectional area in all of the three analyzed areas: the narrow neck, intertrochanter and femoral shaft. The subsequent derived mechanical parameters, cross-sectional moment of inertia, section modulus and buckling ratio, were also improved by denosumab. In addition, the improvement of these parameters was also observed in the patients that had switched from placebo to denosumab treatment. The present study suggests the structural evidence explaining the strong anti-fracture efficacy of denosumab and its significant effects on cortical bone in Japanese.

Cell-based inhibitor screening identifies multiple protein kinases important for circadian clock oscillations.

Molecular oscillation of the circadian clock is based on E-box-mediated transcriptional feedback loop formed with clock genes and their encoding products, clock proteins. The clock proteins are regulated by post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation. We investigated the effects of a series of kinase inhibitors on gene expression rhythms in Rat-1 fibroblasts. The period of the cellular circadian rhythm in culture was lengthened by treatment with SB203580 (p38 MAPK inhibitor), SP600125 (JNK inhibitor), IC261 (CKI inhibitor) and Roscovitine (CDK inhibitor). On the other hand, the period was shortened by SB216763 (GSK-3 inhibitor) or KN93 (CaMKII inhibitor) treatment. Application of 20 µM KN93 completely abolished the rhythmic gene expression. The activity of CaMKII exhibited circadian variation in a phase close to the E-box-mediated transcriptional rhythms. In vitro kinase assay revealed that CaMKII directly phosphorylates N-terminal and Ser/Pro-rich domains of CLOCK, an activator of E-box-mediated transcription. These results indicate a phosphorylation-dependent tuning of the period length by a regulatory network of multiple kinases and reveal an essential role of CaMKII in the cellular oscillation mechanism.

Activation of TGF-beta/activin signalling resets the circadian clock through rapid induction of Dec1 transcripts.

The circadian clock is reset by external time cues for synchronization to environmental changes. In mammals, the light-input signalling pathway mediated by Per gene induction has been extensively studied. On the other hand, little is known about resetting mechanisms that are independent of Per induction. Here we show that activation of activin receptor-like kinase (ALK), triggered by TGF-beta, activin or alkali signals, evoked resetting of the cellular clock independently of Per induction. The resetting was mediated by an immediate-early induction of Dec1, a gene whose physiological role in the function of the circadian clock has been unclear. Acute Dec1 induction was a prerequisite for ALK-mediated resetting and upregulation was dependent on SMAD3, which was phosphorylated for activation in response to the resetting stimuli. Intraperitoneal injection of TGF-beta into wild-type or Dec1-deficient mice demonstrated that Dec1 has an essential role in phase-shift of clock gene expression in the kidney and adrenal gland. These results indicate that ALK-SMAD3-Dec1 signalling provides an input pathway in the mammalian molecular clock.