Vascular endothelial dysfunction induced by 3-bromofluoranthene via MAPK-mediated-NFκB pro-inflammatory pathway and intracellular ROS generation.

3-Bromofluoranthene (3-BrFlu) is the secondary metabolite of fluoranthene, which is classified as a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, through bromination and exists in the fine particulate matter of air pollutants. Endothelial dysfunction plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular and vascular diseases. Little is known about the molecular mechanism of 3-BrFlu on endothelial dysfunction in vivo and in vitro assay. In the present study, 3-BrFlu included concentration-dependent changes in ectopic angiogenesis of the sub-intestinal vein and dilation of the dorsal aorta in zebrafish. Disruption of vascular endothelial integrity and up-regulation of vascular endothelial permeability were also induced by 3-BrFlu in a concentration-dependent manner through pro-inflammatory responses in vascular endothelial cells, namely, SVEC4-10 cells. Generation of pro-inflammatory mediator PGE2 was induced by 3-BrFlu through COX2 expression. Expression of COX2 and generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNFα and IL-6, were induced by 3-BrFlu through phosphorylation of NF-κB p65, which was mediated by phosphorylation of MAPK, including p38 MAPK, ERK and JNK. Furthermore, generation of intracellular ROS was induced by 3-BrFlu, which is associated with the down-regulated activities of the antioxidant enzyme (AOE), including SOD and catalase. We also found that 3-BrFlu up-regulated expression of the AOE and HO-1 induced by 3-BrFlu through Nrf-2 expression. However, the 3-BrFlu-induced upregulation of AOE and HO-1 expression could not be revised the responses of vascular endothelial dysfunction. In conclusion, 3-BrFlu is a hazardous substance that results in vascular endothelial dysfunction through the MAPK-mediated-NFκB pro-inflammatory pathway and intracellular ROS generation.

Hibifolin protected pro-inflammatory response and oxidative stress in LPS-induced acute lung injury through antioxidative enzymes and the AMPK2/Nrf-2 pathway.

ALI is a grave medical ailment that manifests as abrupt inflammation of the lungs and diminished oxygen levels. It poses a considerable challenge to the medical fraternity, with elevated rates of morbidity and mortality. Our research endeavors to investigate the potential of hibifolin, a flavonoid glucuronide, imbued with potent antioxidant properties, and its molecular mechanism to combat LPS-induced ALI in mice. The study utilized ICR mice to create an ALI model induced by LPS. Prior to LPS administration, hibifolin was given at 10, 30, or 50 mg/kg, or dexamethasone was given at 1 mg/kg to assess its preventative impact. Changes in lung tissue, pulmonary edema, and lipid peroxidation were analyzed using H&E stain assay, lung wet/dry ratio assay, and MDA formation assay, respectively. Activity assay kits were used to measure MPO activity and antioxidative enzymes (SOD, CAT, GPx) activity in the lungs. Western blot assay was used to determine the phosphorylation of Nrf-2 and AMPK2 in the lungs. Hibifolin demonstrated a concentration-dependent improvement in LPS-induced histopathologic pulmonary changes. This treatment notably mitigated pulmonary edema, lipid peroxidation, and MPO activity in ALI mice. Additionally, hibifolin successfully restored antioxidative enzyme activity in the lungs of ALI mice. Moreover, hibifolin effectively promoted Nrf-2 phosphorylation and reinstated AMPK2 phosphorylation in the lungs of ALI mice. The results indicate that hibifolin could effectively alleviate the pathophysiological impact of LPS-induced ALI. This is likely due to its antioxidative properties, which help to restore antioxidative enzyme activity and activate the AMPK2/Nrf2 pathway. These findings are valuable in terms of enhancing our knowledge of ALI treatment and pave the way for further investigation into hibifolin as a potential therapeutic option for lung injuries.

Wogonin induces apoptosis in macrophages by exhibiting cytotoxic and genotoxic effects.

Macrophages play an important role in defending the body against invading pathogens. In the face of pathogens, macrophages become activated and release toxic materials that disrupt the pathogens. Macrophage overactivation can lead to severe illness and inflammation. Wogonin has several therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects. No studies have investigated the cytotoxic effects of wogonin at concentrations of more than 0.1 mM in RAW264.7 cells. In this study, RAW 264.7 cells were treated with wogonin, which, at concentrations of more than 0.1 mM, had cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in the RAW264.7 cells, leading to apoptosis and necrosis. Further, wogonin at concentrations of more than 0.1 mM induced caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 activation and mitochondrial dysfunction and death receptor expression. These results suggest that wogonin induces apoptosis through upstream intrinsic and extrinsic pathways by exhibiting cytotoxic and genotoxic effects.

Cyclizine induces cytotoxicity and apoptosis in macrophages through the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways.

Cyclizine, an over-the-counter and prescription antihistamine, finds widespread application in the prevention and treatment of motion sickness, encompassing symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, dizziness, along with its effectiveness in managing vertigo. However, the overuse or misuse of cyclizine may lead to hallucinations, confusion, tachycardia, and hypertension. The molecular mechanisms underlying cyclizine-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis remain unclear. During the 24 h incubation duration, RAW264.7 macrophages were exposed to different concentrations of cyclizine. Cytotoxicity was assessed through the lactate dehydrogenase assay. Flow cytometry employing annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate and propidium iodide was utilized to evaluate apoptosis and necrosis. Caspase activity and mitochondrial dysfunction were evaluated through a fluorogenic substrate assay and JC-1 dye, respectively. Flow cytometry employing fluorogenic antibodies was utilized to evaluate the release of cytochrome c and expression of death receptor, including tumor necrosis factor-α receptor and Fas receptor. Western blotting was utilized to evaluate the expression of the Bcl2 and Bad apoptotic regulatory proteins. The findings unveiled from the present study demonstrated that cyclizine exerted a concentration-dependent effect on RAW264.7 macrophages, leading to the induction of cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and necrosis. This compound further activated the intrinsic apoptotic pathway by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction, Bcl2/Bad exchange expression, cytochrome c liberation, and activation of caspases contained caspase 3, 8, and 9. Moreover, the activation of the extrinsic apoptotic pathway was observed as cyclizine induced the upregulation of death receptors and increased caspase activities. Based on our investigations, it can be inferred that cyclizine prompts cytotoxicity and apoptosis in RAW264.7 macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner by triggering both the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways.

Rutin alleviates bisphenol A-glycidyl methacrylate-induced generation of proinflammatory mediators through the MAPK and NF-κB pathways in macrophages.

Bisphenol A-glycidyl methacrylate (BisGMA) is a methacrylate monomer that is mainly used in three-dimensional structures to reconstruct dental and bony defects. BisGMA has toxic and proinflammatory effects on macrophages. Rutin is a natural flavonol glycoside that is present in various plants and has useful biological effects, such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antioxidative effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammation of rutin in macrophages after exposure to BisGMA. Pretreatment of the RAW264.7 macrophage with rutin at 0, 10, 30, and 100 µM for 30 min before being incubated with BisGMA at 0 or 3 µM. Proinflammatory cytokines and prostaglandin (PG) E2 were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Nitric oxide (NO) was detected by the Griess assay. Expression and phosphorylation of proteins were measured by Western blot assay. Pretreatment with rutin inhibited the BisGMA-induced generation of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, and PGE2, in macrophages. Rutin also suppressed the BisGMA-induced secretion of NO and expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, rutin suppressed the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation in a concentration-dependent manner. Finally, rutin suppressed the BisGMA-induced phosphorylation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB p65 and degradation of inhibitor of κB (IκB). These results indicate that the concentration of rutin has an inhibitory effect on proinflammatory mediator generation, MAPK phosphorylation, NF-κB p65 phosphorylation, and IκB degradation. In conclusion, rutin is a potential anti-inflammatory agent for BisGMA-stimulated macrophages through NF-κB p65 phosphorylation and IκB degradation resulting from MAPK phosphorylation.

Cyclizine-induced proinflammatory responses through Akt-NFκB pathway in macrophages.

Cyclizine exhibits sedation and treatment of nausea, vomiting, and motion sickness due to antihistaminic and antimuscarinic effects. Cyclizine has the potential for abuse due to the hallucinogenic and euphoric effect. The response of overdose and illegal abuse of cyclizine includes confusion, tremors, chest pain, ataxia, seizures, and lead to suicide. Macrophage plays the important role in the innate immunity. However, over activation of macrophages results in pro-inflammatory responses in peripheral tissues. In the present study, cyclizine was found to enhanced the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1ß, and IL-6. We further found that secretion of nitrogen oxide (NO) induced by cyclizine via expression of inducible nitric oxide synthases (iNOS). Cyclizine exhibited parallel stimulation of phosphorylation of nuclear factor-κB (NFκB) p65, and its up-stream factor Akt. These results indicated that the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, pro-inflammatory mediators, and adhesion molecules would be induced by cyclizine via activation of Akt-NFκB pathway in macrophages.

Risk of peripheral artery disease and stroke in migraineurs with or without aura: a nationwide population-based cohort study.

Background: Migraine is deemed a neurovascular disorder and there is growing evidence on the increased risk of cardiovascular disease, especially ischemic stroke, in patients with migraine. However the risk of peripheral artery disease (PAD) and stroke in migraineurs and the association between migraineurs with or without aura is still under debate. Our study aimed to identify the risk of PAD and stroke in migraineurs with or without aura. Methods: This was a population-based cohort study utilizing Taiwan Longitudinal Health Insurance Database (LHID2010). Patients with coding of migraine from 2002 to 2011 were enrolled and those with established cardiovascular disease defined as myocardial infarction, stroke, PAD, venous thromboembolism, atrial fibrillation and heart failure diagnosis before the index date were excluded. Participants were categorized into migraine group, migraine without aura group, and migraine with aura group respectively. The subjects in the three groups were propensity score-matched randomly to their counterparts without migraine. The study outcome was PAD and stroke. The Cox proportional hazard model was used to estimate the hazard ratios with 95% confidence interval (CI) for the association between migraine and the incident events of disease, after controlling for related variables. Results: The migraine, migraine without aura, and migraine with aura group included 5,173 patients, 942 patients and 479 patients respectively after propensity score-matching. The migraine group had an increased risk of PAD [adjusted hazard ratio (aHR): 1.93; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.45-2.57; p < 0.001] and stroke (aHR: 1.55; 95% CI: 1.35-1.77; p < 0.001) compared to their non-migraine controls. Both the groups of migraine without aura and with aura had an increased risk of stroke (aHR: 1.49, 95% CI: 1.11-2.00; p = 0.008; aHR: 1.63, 95% CI: 1.10-2.43; p = 0.016). With regards to the outcome of PAD, the group of migraine with aura had a trend of an increased risk but did not reach statistical significance (aHR: 1.95, 95% CI: 0.86-4.40; p = 0.108). Conclusion: Migraineurs without established cardiovascular disease had a significantly increased risk of PAD and stroke, and the risk of stroke persists in migraineurs with or without aura, with an increased trend of PAD in migraineurs with aura. Our study result should remind clinical physicians of the risk of PAD in the future among migraineurs even without established cardiovascular disease currently, and screening for PAD and stroke may be needed in caring patients with migraine.

Protective effect of wogonin on inflammatory responses in BisGMA-treated macrophages through the inhibition of MAPK and NFκB pathways.

Composites, resins, and sealants that are commonly used in orthopedics and dentistry are based on 2,2-bis[p-(2'-hydroxy-3'-methacryloxypropoxy)phenylene]propane (BisGMA), which induces proinflammatory responses in macrophages. The present study aimed to explore the anti-inflammatory responses of wogonin, which is a natural dihydroxyl flavonoid compound, in BisGMA-treated macrophages. According to the findings, wogonin exhibits anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, anticancer, and antioxidative properties. The generation of nitric oxide (NO) and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were noted to be inhibited by wogonin in BisGMA-treated macrophages. Furthermore, the production of proinflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1ß, and IL-6 was reduced. In addition, BisGMA-induced nuclear factor (NF)-κB p65 phosphorylation and inhibitor of κB (IκB) degradation were inhibited. Finally, the BisGMA-induced phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), including p38 MAPK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) was inhibited. All these effects were induced by wogonin in the macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner. Similar inhibitory effects of wogonin were observed on the production of NO and proinflammatory cytokines, expression of iNOS, phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 and MAPK, and degradation of IκB. These results indicated that rutin is a potential anti-inflammatory agent for BisGMA-treated macrophages that undergo NFκB p65 phosphorylation and IκB degradation through upstream MAPK phosphorylation. Therefore, wogonin inhibits BisGMA-induced proinflammatory responses in macrophages through the regulation of the NFκB pathway and its upstream factor, MAPK.

Fucoxanthin decreases lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury through the inhibition of RhoA activation and the NF-κB pathway.

Fucoxanthin is a natural pigment widely distributed in macroalgae and microalgae. An orange-colored xanthophyll, it has several bioactive effects, including anticancer, anti-obesity, oxidative stress reduction, and anti-inflammation. Acute lung injury (ALI) caused by acute infections or injurious stimuli to the lung tissues is a severe pulmonary inflammatory disease. To date, no evidence has shown ALI to be reduced by fucoxanthin through activation of Ras homolog family member A (RhoA) and the nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated mice. Pretreatment with fucoxanthin inhibited histopathological changes in lung tissues and neutrophil infiltration into bronchoalveolar lavage fluid induced by LPS in ALI mice. Moreover, LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokine expression and neutrophil infiltration were inhibited by fucoxanthin in a concentration-dependent manner. Pretreatment of mice with fucoxanthin inhibited NF-κB phosphorylation and IκB degradation in the lungs of mice with LPS-induced ALI. We further found that phosphorylation of Akt and p38 mitogen-activated protein KINASE (MAPK) was inhibited by fucoxanthin. By contrast, the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and c-Jun N-terminal kinase was not inhibited by fucoxanthin. Furthermore, we found that the activation of RhoA was inhibited by fucoxanthin in LPS-induced ALI. On the basis of these results, we propose that fucoxanthin disrupts the RhoA activation-mediated phosphorylation of Akt and p38 MAPK, leading to NF-κB activation in mice with LPS-induced ALI.

Bisphenol A induced apoptosis via oxidative stress generation involved Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and mitochondrial dependent pathways in human retinal pigment epithelium (ARPE-19) cells.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an estrogen-like compound, and an environmental hormone, that is commonly used in daily life. Therefore, it may enter the human body through food or direct contact, causing BPA residues in blood and urine. Because most studies focused on the analysis of BPA in reproductive cells or tissues, regarding evidence the effect of BPA on human retinal pigment epithelium (ARPE-19) cells unavailable. Accordingly, the present study explored the cytotoxicity of BPA on ARPE-19 cells. After BPA treatment, the expression of Bcl-XL an antiapoptotic protein, in the mitochondria decreased, and the expression of Bax, a proapoptotic protein increased. Then the mitochondrial membrane potential was affected. BPA changed in mitochondrial membrane potential led to the release of cytochrome C, which activated caspase-9 to promote downstream caspase-3 leading to cytotoxicity. The nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) pathway play a major role in age-related macular degeneration. Our results showed that expression of HO-1 and Nrf2 suppressed by BPA. Superoxide dismutase and catalase, which Nrf2 downstream antioxidants, were degraded by BPA. AMP-activated kinase (AMPK), which can regulate the phosphorylation of Nrf2, and the phosphorylation of AMPK expression was reduced by BPA. Finally, BPA-induced ROS generation and cytotoxicity were reduced by N-acetyl-l-cysteine. Taken together, these results suggest that BPA induced ARPE-19 cells via oxidative stress, which was associated with down regulated Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, and the mitochondria dependent apoptotic signaling pathway.

Protective Effect of Rutin on Triethylene Glycol Dimethacrylate-Induced Toxicity through the Inhibition of Caspase Activation and Reactive Oxygen Species Generation in Macrophages.

Rutin, also called quercetin-3-rhamnosyl glucoside, is a natural flavonol glycoside present in many plants. Rutin is used to treat various diseases, such as inflammation, diabetes, and cancer. For polymeric biomaterials, triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) is the most commonly used monomer and serves as a restorative resin, a dentin bonding agent and sealant, and a bone cement component. Overall, TEGDMA induces various toxic effects in macrophages, including cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and genotoxicity. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective mechanism of rutin in alleviating TEGDMA-induced toxicity in RAW264.7 macrophages. After treatment with rutin, we assessed the cell viability and apoptosis of TEGDMA-induced RAW264.7 macrophages using an methylthiazol tetrazolium (MTT) assay and Annexin V-FITC/propidium iodide assay, respectively. Subsequently, we assessed the level of genotoxicity using comet and micronucleus assays, assessed the cysteinyla aspartate specific proteinases (caspases) and antioxidant enzyme (AOE) activity using commercial kits, and evaluated the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) using a dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay. We evaluated the expression of heme oxygenase (HO)-1, the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor (Nrf-2), and phosphorylation of AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) using the Western blot assay. The results indicated that rutin substantially reduced the level of cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and genotoxicity of TEGDMA-induced RAW264.7 macrophages. Rutin also blocked the activity of caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 in TEGDMA-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. In addition, it decreased TEGDMA-induced ROS generation and AOE deactivation in macrophages. Finally, we found that TEGDMA-inhibited slightly the HO-1 expression, Nrf-2 expression, and AMPK phosphorylation would be revered by rutin. In addition, the HO-1 expression, Nrf-2 expression, and AMPK phosphorylation was enhanced by rutin. These findings indicate that rutin suppresses TEGDMA-induced caspase-mediated toxic effects through ROS generation and antioxidative system deactivation through the Nrf-2/AMPK pathway. Therefore, rutin has the potential to serve as a novel antitoxicity agent for TEGDMA in RAW264.7 macrophages.

Preventive Intrathecal Injection of Bupivacaine Alleviated Microglia Activation and Neuropathic Pain in a Rat Model of Chronic Constriction Injury.

Spinal microglia are crucial to neuronal hyper-excitability and pain hypersensitivity. The local anesthetic bupivacaine is commonly used for both peripheral and spinal anesthesia. The pain-relief effects resulting from the peripheral and systemic administration of bupivacaine have been previously reported. In this study, the preventive effects of intrathecal bupivacaine administration against neuropathic pain were revealed in a rat model of sciatic nerve chronic constriction injury (CCI). Using a CCI rat model, pain hypersensitivity, characterized by mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, correlated well with microglia M1 polarization, activation and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in both spinal cord dorsal horns and sciatic nerves. Bupivacaine attenuated pain behaviors and inflammatory alternations. We further identified that the Interferon Regulatory Factor 5 (IRF5)/P2X Purinoceptor 4 (P2X4R) and High Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1)/Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4)/NF-κB inflammatory axes may each play pivotal roles in the acquisition of microglia M1 polarization and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression under CCI insult. The relief of pain paralleled with the suppression of microglia M1 polarization, elevation of microglia M2 polarization, and inhibition of IRF5/P2X4R and HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB in both the spinal cord dorsal horns and sciatic nerve. Our findings provide molecular and biochemical evidence for the anti-neuropathic effect of preventive bupivacaine.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Contributed to Dipyridamole-Induced Impaired Autophagic Flux and Glioma Apoptosis.

Elevation of intracellular cAMP levels has been implicated in glioma cell proliferation inhibition, differentiation, and apoptosis. Inhibition of phosphodiesterase is a way to elevate intracellular cAMP levels. The present study aimed to investigate the anti-glioma potential of dipyridamole, an inhibitor of phosphodiesterase. Upon treatment with dipyridamole, human U87 glioma cells decreased cell viability, clonogenic colonization, migration, and invasion, along with Noxa upregulation, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) stress, impaired autophagic flux, Yes-associated Protein 1 (YAP1) phosphorylation, and YAP1 reduction. Pharmacological and genetic studies revealed the ability of dipyridamole to initiate Noxa-guided apoptosis through ER stress. Additionally, the current study further identified the biochemical role of YAP1 in communicating with ER stress and autophagy under situations of dipyridamole treatment. YAP1 promoted autophagy and protected glioma cells from dipyridamole-induced apoptotic cell death. Dipyridamole impaired autophagic flux and rendered glioma cells more vulnerable to apoptotic cell death through ER stress-inhibitable YAP1/autophagy axis. The overall cellular changes caused by dipyridamole appeared to ensure a successful completion of apoptosis. Dipyridamole also duplicated the biochemical changes and apoptosis in glioma T98G cells. Since dipyridamole has additional biochemical and pharmacological properties, further research centered on the anti-glioma mechanisms of dipyridamole is still needed.

Oral treatment for diabetes using α-glucosidase inhibitors was a risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a cohort study.

Objectives: Currently, diabetes mellitus (DM) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have proven to be risk factors for each other. This study aimed to determine the risk relationship between COPD and five common oral medications for DM among patients with DM. Methods: This population-based cohort study was conducted from 2008 to 2013. Patient data were retrieved from the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database (LHID) of the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD). After pairing by gender, age, and index date, time-to-event analysis and multiple regression analysis were performed to determine the factors associated with COPD in patients taking oral medication for DM, including age, gender, income, and comorbidities. We identified 1,028 patients who took oral medication for DM and 1,028 controls who did not take oral medication for DM. Results: We observed that the use of α-glucosidase inhibitors was associated with a higher risk of COPD (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.964, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.207-2.380). Furthermore, compared with the control group, α-glucosidase inhibitor users had a higher risk of COPD (HR: 2.295, 95% CI: 1.304-4.038), and no significant difference was observed in other oral medications for DM. Conclusions: Based on present results, we could suggest that patients with DM who used α-glucosidase inhibitors are probably a higher risk of COPD. We recommend that in the future, treatment with α-glucosidase inhibitors upregulate the occurrence of COPD might through gastrointestinal side effects and malnutrition.

Risk of Pneumonia is associated with Antipsychotic Drug Use among older patients with Parkinson's Disease: A Case-control Study.

Objective: To investigate the risk of pneumonia associated with the use of antipsychotic drugs in older-adult patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) in Taiwan. Methods: This case-control study was based on data from the longitudinal health insurance database in Taiwan. We analyzed the data of 51,158 older patients with PD for the period between 2001 and 2016. To reduce the potential confounding caused by unbalanced covariates in nonexperimental settings, we used propensity score matching to include older patients without pneumonia to serve as the control group. Results: Compared with patients who had never taken antipsychotics, current (adjusted odds ratios [aOR] =1.63, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.51-1.75), recent (aOR = 1.63, 95% CI = 1.52-1.74), and past (aOR = 1.89, 95% CI = 1.80-2.00) users of antipsychotics had a higher risk of incident pneumonia. Among typical and atypical antipsychotics, haloperidol and clozapine were associated with higher risks of incident pneumonia, respectively. By contrast, aripiprazole was not associated with a higher risk of pneumonia. Conclusion: Older patients with PD receiving typical antipsychotics or atypical antipsychotics had a higher risk of pneumonia. Among these antipsychotics, clozapine had the highest risk of pneumonia. Clinicians should pay attention to the risk of pneumonia in older patients with PD who receive typical antipsychotics and atypical antipsychotics.

3-Bromofluoranthene-induced cardiotoxicity of zebrafish and apoptosis in the vascular endothelial cells via intrinsic and extrinsic caspase-dependent pathways.

Fluoranthene, a high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), is widely present in air pollutants, including fine inhalable particulate matter. 3-Bromofluoranthene (3-BrFlu), which is a brominated fluoranthene and halogenated PAH, is generated from waste combustion, metallurgical processes, cement production, e-waste dismantling, and photoreaction. Vascular endothelial cells have key functions in the homeostasis and the development of the cardiovascular system. The zebrafish model has been widely employed to study cardiotoxicity and embryotoxicity. However, no evidence has indicated that 3-BrFlu induces cytotoxicity in vascular endothelial cells, or cardiotoxicity and embryotoxicity in zebrafish. In this study, 3-BrFlu induced concentration-dependent changes in embryo- and cardiotoxicity. Cytotoxicity was also induced by 3-BrFlu in a concentration-dependent manner through apoptosis and necrosis in vascular endothelial cells, SVEC4-10 cells. The activities of caspase-3, -8, and -9 were induced by 3-BrFlu via an intrinsic pathway constituting Bcl-2 downregulation, Bad upregulation, and mitochondrial dysfunction; the extrinsic pathway included the expression of death receptors, including tumour necrosis factor α and Fas receptors. These results indicated that 3-BrFlu caused cardio- and embryotoxicity in zebrafish through vascular endothelial cells cytotoxicity resulting from caspase-dependent apoptosis through intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.

Genotoxic effects of 1-nitropyrene in macrophages are mediated through a p53-dependent pathway involving cytochrome c release, caspase activation, and PARP-1 cleavage.

Genotoxic stress from environmental pollutants plays a critical role in cytotoxicity. The most abundant nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in environmental pollutants, 1-nitropyrene (1-NP), is generated during fossil fuel, diesel, and biomass combustion under sunlight. Macrophages, the key regulators of the innate immune system, provide the first line of defense against pathogens. The toxic effects of 1-NP on macrophages remain unclear. Through a lactate dehydrogenase assay, we measured the cytotoxicity induced by 1-NP. Our results revealed that 1-NP induced genotoxicity also named DNA damage, including micronucleus formation and DNA strand breaks, in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, 1-NP induced p53 phosphorylation and nuclear accumulation; mitochondrial cytochrome c release; caspase-3 and -9 activation and cleavage; and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) cleavage in a concentration-dependent manner. Pretreatment with the PARP inhibitor, 3-aminobenzamide, significantly reduced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and PARP-1 cleavage induced by 1-NP. Pretreatment with the caspase-3 inhibitor, z-DEVD-fmk, significantly reduced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, PARP-1 cleavage, and caspase 3 activation induced by 1-NP. Pretreatment with the p53 inhibitor, pifithrin-α, significantly reduced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, PARP-1 cleavage, caspase 3 activation, and p53 phosphorylation induced by 1-NP. We propose that cytotoxicity and genotoxicity induced by 1-NP by PARP-1 cleavage via caspase-3 and -9 activation through cytochrome c release from mitochondria and its upstream p53-dependent pathway in macrophages.

Magnesium lithospermate B supplementation improved prenatal Bisphenol A exposure-induced metabolic abnormalities in male offspring.

Obesity is closely linked with metabolic diseases, while life and prenatal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals has been implicated in the development of obesity. Magnesium lithospermate B (MLB), an active compound of Salvia miltiorrhiza (Danshen), has beneficial effects on insulin resistance and metabolic abnormalities in diet-induced obese rodents. Since exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemical Bisphenol A (BPA) during pregnancy mimics the effects of high fat diet-induced alterations of glucose and lipid metabolism in adult male offspring, the effects of daily MLB supplementation for 4 weeks on metabolic abnormalities in rats weaning from prenatal BPA-exposed dams were investigated. BPA-exposed rats developed obesity and adiposity concurrent with hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia, and elevation of circulating glucagon and free fatty acids. Increased hepatic fatty acid synthesis and decreased fatty acid ß-oxidation, activation of adipocytic adipogenesis, maturation, and lipogenesis, as well as reduction of muscular glucose uptake were demonstrated in BPA-exposed rats. The aforementioned alterations were improved by MLB supplementation. Additionally, MLB displayed negative effects on glucocorticoid receptor action and inflammation, and promoted lipolysis and thermogenesis in the adipose tissues. In conclusion, our findings suggest that MLB may be a potential therapeutic compound against metabolic diseases, including maternal exposure-induced metabolic abnormalities.

Rutin-protected BisGMA-induced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and apoptosis in macrophages through the reduction of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and induction of antioxidant enzymes.

Bisphenol-A-glycidyldimethacrylate (BisGMA) is a resin monomer frequently used in dentin restorative treatments. The leakage of BisGMA monomer from BisGMA-based polymeric resins can lead to cytotoxicity in macrophages. Rutin has various beneficial bioeffects, including antioxidation and antiinflammation. In this study, we found that pretreatment of RAW264.7 macrophages with rutin-inhibited cytotoxicity induced by BisGMA in a concentration-dependent manner. BisGMA-induced apoptosis, which was detected by levels of phosphatidylserine from the internal to the external membrane and formation of sub-G1, and genotoxicity, which was detected by cytokinesis-blocked micronucleus and single-cell gel electrophoresis assays, were inhibited by rutin in a concentration-dependent manner. Rutin suppressed the BisGMA-induced activation of caspase-3 and -9 rather than caspase-8. Rutin inhibited the activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, including cytochrome C release and mitochondria disruption, after macrophages were treated with BisGMA. Finally, BisGMA-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and antioxidant enzyme (AOE) deactivation could be reversed by rutin. Parallel trends were observed in the elevation of AOE activation and inhibition of ROS generation, caspase-3 activity, mitochondrial apoptotic pathway activation, and genotoxicity. These results suggested that rutin suppressed BisGMA-induced cytotoxicity through genotoxicity, the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, and relatively upstream factors, including reduction of ROS generation and induction of AOE.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Contributes to Gefitinib-Induced Apoptosis in Glioma.

Adequate stress on the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) with the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) could maintain glioma malignancy. Uncontrolled ER stress, on the other hand, predisposes an apoptosis-dominant UPR program. We studied here the proapoptotic actions of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) inhibitor gefitinib, with the focus on ER stress. The study models were human H4 and U87 glioma cell lines. We found that the glioma cell-killing effects of gefitinib involved caspase 3 apoptotic cascades. Three branches of ER stress, namely Activating Transcription Factor-6 (ATF6), Protein Kinase R (PKR)-Like ER Kinase (PERK), and Inositol-Requiring Enzyme 1 (IRE1), were activated by gefitinib, along with the elevation of intracellular free Ca2+, Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), and NADPH Oxidase2/4 (NOX2/4). Specifically, elevated IRE1 phosphorylation, Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) Receptor-Associated Factor-2 (TRAF2) expression, Apoptosis Signal-Regulating Kinase-1 (Ask1) phosphorylation, c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase (JNK) phosphorylation, and Noxa expression appeared in gefitinib-treated glioma cells. Genetic, pharmacological, and biochemical studies further indicated an active ROS/ER stress/Ask1/JNK/Noxa axis causing the glioma apoptosis induced by gefitinib. The findings suggest that ER-stress-based therapeutic targeting could be a promising option in EGFR inhibitor glioma therapy, and may ultimately achieve a better patient response.