Climate Change Impact on Wheat Performance-Effects on Vigour, Plant Traits and Yield from Early and Late Drought Stress in Diverse Lines.

Global climate change is threatening wheat productivity; improved yield under drought conditions is urgent. Here, diverse spring-wheat lines (modern, old and wheat-rye introgressions) were examined in an image-based early-vigour assay and a controlled-conditions (Biotron) trial that evaluated 13 traits until maturity. Early root vigour was significantly higher in the old Swedish lines (root length 8.50 cm) and introgressed lines with 1R (11.78 cm) and 1RS (9.91 cm) than in the modern (4.20 cm) and 2R (4.67 cm) lines. No significant correlation was noted between early root and shoot vigour. A higher yield was obtained under early drought stress in the 3R genotypes than in the other genotype groups, while no clear patterns were noted under late drought. Evaluating the top 10% of genotypes in terms of the stress-tolerance index for yield showed that root biomass, grains and spikes per plant were accountable for tolerance to early drought, while 1000-grain weight and flag-leaf area were accountable for tolerance to late drought. Early root vigour was determined as an important focus trait of wheat breeding for tolerance to climate-change-induced drought. The responsible genes for the trait should be searched for in these diverse lines. Additional drought-tolerance traits determined here need further elaboration to identify the responsible genes.

Innovatively processed quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) food: chemistry, structure and end-use characteristics.

BACKGROUND: Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) flour and processed traditional Peruvian quinoa breakfast foods were studied to evaluate the effect of extrusion and post-processing on protein properties, morphology and nutritional characteristics (amino acids and dietary fibers). RESULTS: The extrusion increased quinoa protein crosslinking and aggregation observed by size exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography and the amount of soluble fibers, as well as decreasing the amounts of insoluble fibers in the processed foods. The post-processing drying resulted in additional crosslinking of large protein fractions in the quinoa products. The microstructure of the extruded quinoa breakfast flakes and heat-post-processed samples studied by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray tomography differed greatly; post-drying induced formation of aerated protein microstructures in the heat-treated samples. Nanostructures revealed by small-angle and wide-angle X-ray scattering indicated that extrusion imparted morphological changes in the quinoa protein and starch (dominance of V-type). Overall, extrusion processing only reduced the content of most of the essential amino acids to a minor extent; the content of valine and methionine was reduced to a slightly greater extent, but the final products met the requirements of the Food and Drug Organization. CONCLUSION: This study presents innovative examples on how extrusion processing and post-processing heat treatment can be used to produce attractive future food alternatives, such as breakfast cereal flakes and porridge powder, from quinoa grains. Extrusion of quinoa flour into Peruvian foods was shown to be mostly impacted by the processing temperature and processing conditions used. Protein crosslinking increased due to extrusion and post-processing heating. Starch crystallinity decreased most when the product was dried after processing. © 2021 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Lupin Protein Isolate Structure Diversity in Frozen-Cast Foams: Effects of Transglutaminases and Edible Fats.

This study addresses an innovative approach to generate aerated foods with appealing texture through the utilization of lupin protein isolate (LPI) in combination with edible fats. We show the impact of transglutaminases (TGs; SB6 and commercial), glycerol (Gly), soy lecithin (Lec) and linoleic acid (LA) on the micro- and nanostructure of health promoting solid foods created from LPI and fats blends. 3-D tomographic images of LPI with TG revealed that SB6 contributed to an exceptional bubble spatial organization. The inclusion of Gly and Lec decreased protein polymerization and also induced the formation of a porous layered material. LA promoted protein polymerization and formation of homogeneous thick layers in the LPI matrix. Thus, the LPI is a promising protein resource which when in blend with additives is able to create diverse food structures. Much focus has been placed on the great foamability of LPI and here we show the resulting microstructure of LPI foams, and how these were improved with addition of TGs. New food applications for LPI can arise with the addition of food grade dispersant Lec and essential fatty-acid LA, by improved puffiness, and their contributing as replacer of chemical leavening additives in gluten-free products.

Impact of pH Modification on Protein Polymerization and Structure⁻Function Relationships in Potato Protein and Wheat Gluten Composites.

Wheat gluten (WG) and potato protein (PP) were modified to a basic pH by NaOH to impact macromolecular and structural properties. Films were processed by compression molding (at 130 and 150 °C) of WG, PP, their chemically modified versions (MWG, MPP) and of their blends in different ratios to study the impact of chemical modification on structure, processing and tensile properties. The modification changed the molecular and secondary structure of both protein powders, through unfolding and re-polymerization, resulting in less cross-linked proteins. The ß-sheet formation due to NaOH modification increased for WG and decreased for PP. Processing resulted in cross-linking of the proteins, shown by a decrease in extractability; to a higher degree for WG than for PP, despite higher ß-sheet content in PP. Compression molding of MPP resulted in an increase in protein cross-linking and improved maximum stress and extensibility as compared to PP at 130 °C. The highest degree of cross-linking with improved maximum stress and extensibility was found for WG/MPP blends compared to WG/PP and MWG/MPP at 130 °C. To conclude, chemical modification of PP changed the protein structures produced under harsh industrial conditions and made the protein more reactive and attractive for use in bio-based materials processing, no such positive gains were seen for WG.

Nanostructural morphology of plasticized wheat gluten and modified potato starch composites: relationship to mechanical and barrier properties.

In the present study, we were able to produce composites of wheat gluten (WG) protein and a novel genetically modified potato starch (MPS) with attractive mechanical and gas barrier properties using extrusion. Characterization of the MPS revealed an altered chain length distribution of the amylopectin fraction and slightly increased amylose content compared to wild type potato starch. WG and MPS of different ratios plasticized with either glycerol or glycerol and water were extruded at 110 and 130 °C. The nanomorphology of the composites showed the MPS having semicrystalline structure of a characteristic lamellar arrangement with an approximately 100 Å period observed by small-angle X-ray scattering and a B-type crystal structure observed by wide-angle X-ray scattering analysis. WG has a structure resembling the hexagonal macromolecular arrangement as reported previously in WG films. A larger amount of ß-sheets was observed in the samples 70/30 and 30/70 WG-MPS processed at 130 °C with 45% glycerol. Highly polymerized WG protein was found in the samples processed at 130 °C versus 110 °C. Also, greater amounts of WG protein in the blend resulted in greater extensibility (110 °C) and a decrease in both E-modulus and maximum stress at 110 and 130 °C, respectively. Under ambient conditions the WG-MPS composite (70/30) with 45% glycerol showed excellent gas barrier properties to be further explored in multilayer film packaging applications.

Chasing high and stable wheat grain mineral content: Mining diverse spring genotypes under induced drought stress.

Climate change-induced drought has an effect on the nutritional quality of wheat. Here, the impact of drought at different plant stages on mineral content in mature wheat was evaluated in 30 spring-wheat lines of diverse backgrounds (modern, old and wheat-rye-introgressions). Genotypes with rye chromosome 3R introgression showed a high accumulation of several important minerals, including Zn and Fe, and these also showed stability across drought conditions. High Se content was found in genotypes with chromosome 1R. Old cultivars (K, Mg, Na, P and S) and 2R introgression lines (Fe, Ca, Mn, Mg and Na) demonstrated high mineral yield at early and late drought, respectively. Based on the low nutritional value often reported for modern wheat and negative climate effects on the stability of mineral content and yield, genes conferring high Zn/Fe, Se, and stable mineral yield under drought at various plant stages should be explicitly explored among 3R, 1R, old and 2R genotypes, respectively.

New Insights into the Bio-Chemical Changes in Wheat Induced by Cd and Drought: What Can We Learn on Cd Stress Using Neutron Imaging?

Cadmium (Cd) and drought stresses are becoming dominant in a changing climate. This study explored the impact of Cd and Cd + drought stress on durum wheat grown in soil and sand at two Cd levels. The physiological parameters were studied using classical methods, while the root architecture was explored using non-invasive neutron computed tomography (NCT) for the first time. Under Cd + drought, all the gas exchange parameters were significantly affected, especially at 120 mg/kg Cd + drought. Elevated Cd was found in the sand-grown roots. We innovatively show the Cd stress impact on the wheat root volume and architecture, and the water distribution in the "root-growing media" was successfully visualized using NCT. Diverse and varying root architectures were observed for soil and sand under the Cd stress compared to the non-stress conditions, as revealed using NCT. The intrinsic structure of the growing medium was responsible for a variation in the water distribution pattern. This study demonstrated a pilot approach to use NCT for quantitative and in situ mapping of Cd stress on wheat roots and visualized the water dynamics in the rhizosphere. The physiological and NCT data provide valuable information to relate further to genetic information for the identification of Cd-resilient wheat varieties in the changing climate.

Alien introgression to wheat for food security: functional and nutritional quality for novel products under climate change.

Crop yield and quality has increased globally during recent decades due to plant breeding, resulting in improved food security. However, climate change and shifts in human dietary habits and preferences display novel pressure on crop production to deliver enough quantity and quality to secure food for future generations. This review paper describes the current state-of-the-art and presents innovative approaches related to alien introgressions into wheat, focusing on aspects related to quality, functional characteristics, nutritional attributes, and development of novel food products. The benefits and opportunities that the novel and traditional plant breeding methods contribute to using alien germplasm in plant breeding are also discussed. In principle, gene introgressions from rye have been the most widely utilized alien gene source for wheat. Furthermore, the incorporation of novel resistance genes toward diseases and pests have been the most transferred type of genes into the wheat genome. The incorporation of novel resistance genes toward diseases and pests into the wheat genome is important in breeding for increased food security. Alien introgressions to wheat from e.g. rye and Aegilops spp. have also contributed to improved nutritional and functional quality. Recent studies have shown that introgressions to wheat of genes from chromosome 3 in rye have an impact on both yield, nutritional and functional quality, and quality stability during drought treatment, another character of high importance for food security under climate change scenarios. Additionally, the introgression of alien genes into wheat has the potential to improve the nutritional profiles of future food products, by contributing higher minerals levels or lower levels of anti-nutritional compounds into e.g., plant-based products substituting animal-based food alternatives. To conclude, the present review paper highlights great opportunities and shows a few examples of how food security and functional-nutritional quality in traditional and novel wheat products can be improved by the use of genes from alien sources, such as rye and other relatives to wheat. Novel and upcoming plant breeding methods such as genome-wide association studies, gene editing, genomic selection and speed breeding, have the potential to complement traditional technologies to keep pace with climate change and consumer eating habits.

Impacts of heat, drought, and combined heat-drought stress on yield, phenotypic traits, and gluten protein traits: capturing stability of spring wheat in excessive environments.

Wheat production and end-use quality are severely threatened by drought and heat stresses. This study evaluated stress impacts on phenotypic and gluten protein characteristics of eight spring wheat genotypes (Diskett, Happy, Bumble, SW1, SW2, SW3, SW4, and SW5) grown to maturity under controlled conditions (Biotron) using RGB imaging and size-exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC). Among the stress treatments compared, combined heat-drought stress had the most severe negative impacts on biomass (real and digital), grain yield, and thousand kernel weight. Conversely, it had a positive effect on most gluten parameters evaluated by SE-HPLC and resulted in a positive correlation between spike traits and gluten strength, expressed as unextractable gluten polymer (%UPP) and large monomeric protein (%LUMP). The best performing genotypes in terms of stability were Happy, Diskett, SW1, and SW2, which should be further explored as attractive breeding material for developing climate-resistant genotypes with improved bread-making quality. RGB imaging in combination with gluten protein screening by SE-HPLC could thus be a valuable approach for identifying climate stress-tolerant wheat genotypes.

Green Chemistry to Modify Functional Properties of Crambe Protein Isolate-Based Thermally Formed Films.

Proteins are promising precursors to be used in production of sustainable materials with properties resembling plastics, although protein modification or functionalization is often required to obtain suitable product characteristics. Here, effects of protein modification were evaluated by crosslinking behavior using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), secondary structure using infrared spectroscopy (IR), liquid imbibition and uptake, and tensile properties of six crambe protein isolates modified in solution before thermal pressing. The results showed that a basic pH (10), especially when combined with the commonly used, although moderately toxic, crosslinking agent glutaraldehyde (GA), resulted in a decrease in crosslinking in unpressed samples, as compared to acidic pH (4) samples. After pressing, a more crosslinked protein matrix with an increase in ß-sheets was obtained in basic samples compared to acidic samples, mainly due to the formation of disulfide bonds, which led to an increase in tensile strength, and liquid uptake with less material resolved. A treatment of pH 10 + GA, combined either with a heat or citric acid treatment, did not increase crosslinking or improve the properties in pressed samples, as compared to pH 4 samples. Fenton treatment at pH 7.5 resulted in a similar amount of crosslinking as the pH 10 + GA treatment, although with a higher degree of peptide/irreversible bonds. The strong bond formation resulted in lack of opportunities to disintegrate the protein network by all extraction solutions tested (even for 6 M urea + 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate + 1% dithiothreitol). Thus, the highest crosslinking and best properties of the material produced from crambe protein isolates were obtained by pH 10 + GA and pH 7.5 + Fenton, where Fenton is a greener and more sustainable solution than GA. Therefore, chemical modification of crambe protein isolates is effecting both sustainability and crosslinking behavior, which might have an effect on product suitability.

Healthy food from organic wheat: choice of genotypes for production and breeding.

BACKGROUND: In the present study, 40 wheat genotypes were grown in the same soil in organic farming system trials in Alnarp, Sweden. The purpose was to evaluate opportunities for production and breeding of organic wheat of high nutritious value. RESULTS: The results showed a large variation in content of minerals, total tocochromanols and heavy metals in the grain of 40 organically produced wheat genotypes. Principal component and cluster analysis were used as tools for selection of the most suitable genotypes for production and breeding of organic wheat of high nutritious value. No single genotype group was found particularly superior from the studied material to produce this specific type of wheat. However, certain genotypes from different groups were found with promising nutritional characters. The most promising genotypes as related to nutritionally relevant compounds were 6356 spelt, Triticum monococcum, Ölands 17 borst spelt, Lv Dal 16 brun borst and Fylgia. CONCLUSION: By choosing these genotypes for organic production and future wheat breeding, nutritionally improved organic wheat products might be developed. However, for future breeding, nutritional components such as protein, fibre, glycaemic index and B-group vitamins should also be considered.

Concentration of some heavy metals in organically grown primitive, old and modern wheat genotypes: implications for human health.

The concentration of six HMs (Cd, Cr, Co, Pb, Hg and Ni) was analysed in 321 organically grown winter and spring wheat genotypes from six genotype groups, i.e. selections, old landraces, primitive wheat, spelt, old cultivars and cultivars. Also the potential risk of individual toxic HM to human health was estimated by using the Hazard Quotient (HQ). Significantly the lowest grain concentration of Cd was found in primitive wheat as compared to all other investigated genotype groups. Intake of HM by consumption of whole wheat grain was not found to pose a health risk to human for any of the investigated genotype groups. The bio-concentration factor of Cd for the different genotype groups indicated a lower ability to accumulate Cd for primitive wheat as compared to other genotype groups. The primitive wheat was found the most promising and might be of interest in future wheat breeding programs to develop wheat genotypes with low HMs concentration in the grain.

Striving for Stability in the Dough Mixing Quality of Spring Wheat under the Influence of Prolonged Heat and Drought.

The effects of prolonged heat and drought stress and cool growing conditions on dough mixing quality traits of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) were studied in fifty-six genotypes grown in 2017 and 2018 in southern Sweden. The mixing parameters evaluated by mixograph and the gluten protein characteristics studied by size exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC) in dough were compared between the two growing seasons which were very different in length, temperature and precipitation. The genotypes varying in gluten strength between the growing seasons (≤5%, ≤12%, and ≤17%) from three groups (stable (S), moderately stable (MS), and of varying stability (VS)) were studied. The results indicate that most of the mixing parameters were more strongly impacted by the interaction between the group, genotype, and year than by their individual contribution. The excessive prolonged heat and drought did not impact the buildup and mixing time expressed as peak time and time 1-2. The gluten polymeric proteins (unextractable, %UPP; total unextractable, TOTU) and large unextractable monomeric proteins (%LUMP) were closely associated with buildup and water absorption in dough. Major significant differences were found in the dough mixing parameters between the years within each group. In Groups S and MS, the majority of genotypes showed the smallest variation in the dough mixing parameters responsible for the gluten strength and dough development between the years. The mixing parameters such as time 1-2, buildup, and peak time (which were not affected by prolonged heat and drought stress) together with the selected gluten protein parameters (%UPP, TOTU, and %LUMP) are essential components to be used in future screening of dough mixing quality in wheat in severe growing environments.

Innovative Green Way to Design Biobased Electrospun Fibers from Wheat Gluten and These Fibers' Potential as Absorbents of Biofluids.

In this study, a new method was developed to successfully design sustainable microfibers from wheat gluten proteins using a nonreducing solvent and electrospinning. We explored the morphology by X-ray tomography, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), protein chemistry and cross-linking by size exclusion-high-performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC), and secondary structure by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) of fibers containing 15 and 20% of gluten. The impact of heat (130 °C) post-treatment on the polymerization properties of fibers and their absorption performance in different biofluids were also evaluated. The fibers with 20% gluten showed a uniform architecture supported by a relatively stronger fibrous network as compared to irregular and brittle fibers from 15% gluten. Heat treatment of fibers increased the protein cross-linking in all electrospun fibers as compared to the non-heat-treated fibers, as evidenced by SE-HPLC. An increase in the amount of α-helices and random coils was observed in the proteins of all of the heat-treated fibers compared to the nontreated fibers by FT-IR. This suggested that the heat treatment contributed positively to the gluten protein's chemical rearrangements, e.g., aggregation, new hydrogen and isopeptide bonding, and conversion of some of the sulfhydryl groups into disulfide cross-links, contributing positively to the functional performance. The heat-treated electrospun fibers with 20% gluten showed a very attractive blood absorption capacity (323%) and reasonable stability in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) buffer compared to 15% gluten fibers and non-heat-treated fibers. Cotton-like fiber architecture, high blood absorption capacity, and reasonable stability in PBS buffer are properties desired for absorbents of biofluids and should be further explored in healthcare and medical applications.

Screening of Spore-Forming Bacteria with Probiotic Potential in Pristine Algerian Caves.

The interest and exploration of biodiversity in subsurface ecosystems have increased significantly during the last 2 decades. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro probiotic properties of spore-forming bacteria isolated from deep caves. Two hundred fifty spore-forming microbes were enriched from sediment samples from 10 different pristine caves in Algeria at different depths. Isolates showing nonpathogenic profiles were screened for their potential to produce digestive enzymes (gliadinase and beta-galactosidase) in solid and liquid media, respectively. Different probiotic potentialities were studied, including (i) growth at 37°C, (ii) survival in simulated gastric juice, (iii) survival in simulated intestinal fluid, and (iv) antibiotic sensitivity and cell surface properties. The results showed that out of 250 isolates, 13 isolates demonstrated nonpathogenic character, probiotic potentialities, and ability to hydrolyze gliadin and lactose in solution. These findings suggest that a selection of cave microbes might serve as a source of interesting candidates for probiotics. IMPORTANCE Previous microbial studies of subsurface ecosystems like caves focused mainly on the natural biodiversity in these systems. So far, only a few studies focused on the biotechnological potential of microbes in these systems, focusing in particular on their antibacterial potential, antibiotic production, and, to some extent, enzymatic potential. This study explores whether subsurface ecosystems can serve as an alternative source for microbes relevant to probiotics. The research focused on the ability of cave microbes to degrade two substrates (lactose and gliadin) that cause common digestive disorders. Since these enzymes may prove to be useful in food processing and in reducing the effect of lactose and gliadin digestion within intolerant patients, isolation of microbes such as in this study may expand the possibilities of developing alternative strategies to deal with these intolerances.

Mechanical properties and network structure of wheat gluten foams.

This Article reports the influence of the protein network structure on the mechanical properties of foams produced from commercial wheat gluten using freeze-drying. Foams were produced from alkaline aqueous solutions at various gluten concentrations with or without glycerol, modified with bacterial cellulose nanosized fibers, or both. The results showed that 20 wt % glycerol was sufficient for plasticization, yielding foams with low modulus and high strain recovery. It was found that when fibers were mixed into the foams, a small but insignificant increase in elastic modulus was achieved, and the foam structure became more homogeneous. SEM indicated that the compatibility between the fibers and the matrix was good, with fibers acting as bridges in the cell walls. IR spectroscopy and SE-HPLC revealed a relatively low degree of aggregation, which was highest in the presence of glycerol. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed distinct differences in HMW-glutenin subunits and gliadin distributions for all of the different samples.

Structure and morphology of wheat gluten films: from polymeric protein aggregates toward superstructure arrangements.

Evaluation of structure and morphology of extruded wheat gluten (WG) films showed WG protein assemblies elucidated on a range of length scales from nano (4.4 Å and 9 to 10 Å, up to 70 Å) to micro (10 µm). The presence of NaOH in WG films induced a tetragonal structure with unit cell parameters, a = 51.85 Å and c = 40.65 Å, whereas NH(4)OH resulted in a bidimensional hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure with a lattice parameter of 70 Å. In the WG films with NH(4)OH, a highly polymerized protein pattern with intimately mixed glutenins and gliadins bounded through SH/SS interchange reactions was found. A large content of ß-sheet structures was also found in these films, and the film structure was oriented in the extrusion direction. In conclusion, this study highlights complexities of the supramolecular structures and conformations of wheat gluten polymeric proteins in biofilms not previously reported for biobased materials.

Individual and interactive effects of cultivar maturation time, nitrogen regime and temperature level on accumulation of wheat grain proteins.

BACKGROUND: Background and reasons for differences in wheat grain protein accumulation and polymerization are not fully understood. This study investigated individual and interactive effects of genetic and environmental factors on wheat grain protein accumulation and amount and size distribution of polymeric proteins (ASPP). RESULTS: Individual factors, e.g. maturation time of a cultivar, nitrogen regime and temperature level, influenced grain protein accumulation and ASPP, although interaction of these factors had a greater influence. Early maturation time and long grain maturation period (GMP) in a cultivar resulted in high amounts of sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)-extractable proteins (TOTE) and low percentage of SDS-unextractable polymeric proteins in total polymeric proteins (%UPP). Cultivars with late maturation time and short GMP resulted in low TOTE and high %UPP. Late versus early nitrogen application regime resulted in low %UPP versus low TOTE and high %UPP, respectively. High versus low temperature resulted in high %UPP and low %UPP, respectively. Differences in ASPP at maturity started as changes in protein accumulation from 12 days after anthesis. CONCLUSION: Length of GMP, especially in relation to length until maturity, governs gluten strength (%UPP) and grain protein concentration (TOTE). Length of GMP is determined by cultivar, temperature during GMP and late nitrogen availability.

Fundamental study on changes in the FODMAP profile of cereals, pseudo-cereals, and pulses during the malting process.

Whole grains and pulses are rich in nutrients but often avoided by individuals with gastrointestinal disorders, due to high levels of fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs). This study investigated the impact of malting as delivery-system for endogenous enzymes. Malts from barley and wheat (naturally high in fructans), lentils and chickpeas (high in galactooligosaccharides), oat and buckwheat (low in FODMAPs) were produced. While barley and wheat malts had slightly elevated fructan-levels, in oat malt 0.8 g/100 g DM fructans were de novo synthesized. In lentils and chickpeas galactooligosaccharides diminished by 80-90%. Buckwheat did not contain any FODMAPs commonly investigated, but fagopyritols which may have a similar physiological effect. Also fagopyritols were degraded. While malted pulses and buckwheat are directly suitable for low FODMAP applications, using the combined approach of malting and fermentation, malted cereals could contribute to high nutritional values of such products.

Unraveling the Structural Puzzle of the Giant Glutenin Polymer-An Interplay between Protein Polymerization, Nanomorphology, and Functional Properties in Bioplastic Films.

A combination of genotype, cultivation environment, and protein separation procedure was used to modify the nanoscale morphology, polymerization, and chemical structure of glutenin proteins from wheat. A low-polymerized glutenin starting material was the key to protein-protein interactions mainly via SS cross-links during film formation, resulting in extended ß-sheet structures and propensity toward the formation of nanoscale morphologies at molecular level. The properties of glutenin bioplastic films were enhanced by the selection of a genotype with a high number of cysteine residues in its chemical structure and cultivation environment with a short grain maturation period, both contributing positively to gluten strength. Thus, a combination of factors affected the structure of glutenins in bioplastic films by forming crystalline ß-sheets and propensity toward the ordered nanostructures, thereby resulting in functional properties with high strength, stiffness, and extensibility.