Concurrent inhibition of oncogenic and wild-type RAS-GTP for cancer therapy.

RAS oncogenes (collectively NRAS, HRAS and especially KRAS) are among the most frequently mutated genes in cancer, with common driver mutations occurring at codons 12, 13 and 611. Small molecule inhibitors of the KRAS(G12C) oncoprotein have demonstrated clinical efficacy in patients with multiple cancer types and have led to regulatory approvals for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer2,3. Nevertheless, KRASG12C mutations account for only around 15% of KRAS-mutated cancers4,5, and there are no approved KRAS inhibitors for the majority of patients with tumours containing other common KRAS mutations. Here we describe RMC-7977, a reversible, tri-complex RAS inhibitor with broad-spectrum activity for the active state of both mutant and wild-type KRAS, NRAS and HRAS variants (a RAS(ON) multi-selective inhibitor). Preclinically, RMC-7977 demonstrated potent activity against RAS-addicted tumours carrying various RAS genotypes, particularly against cancer models with KRAS codon 12 mutations (KRASG12X). Treatment with RMC-7977 led to tumour regression and was well tolerated in diverse RAS-addicted preclinical cancer models. Additionally, RMC-7977 inhibited the growth of KRASG12C cancer models that are resistant to KRAS(G12C) inhibitors owing to restoration of RAS pathway signalling. Thus, RAS(ON) multi-selective inhibitors can target multiple oncogenic and wild-type RAS isoforms and have the potential to treat a wide range of RAS-addicted cancers with high unmet clinical need. A related RAS(ON) multi-selective inhibitor, RMC-6236, is currently under clinical evaluation in patients with KRAS-mutant solid tumours (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT05379985).

Classical RAS proteins are not essential for paradoxical ERK activation induced by RAF inhibitors.

RAF inhibitors unexpectedly induce ERK signaling in normal and tumor cells with elevated RAS activity. Paradoxical activation is believed to be RAS dependent. In this study, we showed that LY3009120, a pan-RAF inhibitor, can unexpectedly cause paradoxical ERK activation in KRASG12C-dependent lung cancer cell lines, when KRAS is inhibited by ARS1620, a KRASG12C inhibitor. Using H/N/KRAS-less mouse embryonic fibroblasts, we discovered that classical RAS proteins are not essential for RAF inhibitor-induced paradoxical ERK signaling. In their absence, RAF inhibitors can induce ERK phosphorylation, ERK target gene transcription, and cell proliferation. We further showed that the MRAS/SHOC2 complex is required for this process. This study highlights the complexity of the allosteric RAF regulation by RAF inhibitors, and the importance of other RAS-related proteins in this process.

Lkb1/Stk11 regulation of mTOR signaling controls the transition of chondrocyte fates and suppresses skeletal tumor formation.

Liver kinase b1 (Lkb1) protein kinase activity regulates cell growth and cell polarity. Here, we show Lkb1 is essential for maintaining a balance between mitotic and postmitotic cell fates in development of the mammalian skeleton. In this process, Lkb1 activity controls the progression of mitotic chondrocytes to a mature, postmitotic hypertrophic fate. Loss of this Lkb1-dependent switch leads to a dramatic expansion of immature chondrocytes and formation of enchondroma-like tumors. Pathway analysis points to a mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1-dependent mechanism that can be partially suppressed by rapamycin treatment. These findings highlight a critical requirement for integration of mammalian target of rapamycin activity into developmental decision-making during mammalian skeletogenesis.

ß2-adrenergic receptors inhibit the expression of collagen type II in growth plate chondrocytes by stimulating the AP-1 factor Jun-B.

The sympathetic nervous system can regulate both osteoblast and chondrocyte growth and activity through ß(2)-adrenergic receptors (ß(2)-AR). We have shown previously that ß(2)-AR activate both adenylyl cyclase and mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK1/2 in growth plate chondrocytes prepared from ribs of embryonic E18.5 mice. Here we examined ß(2)-AR inhibition of collagen type II (Col II) expression in growth plate chondrocytes and the molecular pathways involved. Stimulation of ß(2)-AR by isoproterenol inhibited Col II mRNA and protein levels by ∼50% beginning at 2 h, with both remaining suppressed over 24 h. This inhibition was blocked by propranolol and inhibitors of either MEK1 or PKA. Isoproterenol stimulated an AP-1-luciferase reporter and increased the expression of AP-1 factors c-Fos, Fra-1, Fra-2, c-Jun, and Jun-B but had no effect on Jun-D. Stimulation of AP-1 activity was blocked by inhibitors of MEK1 or PKA. siRNA inhibition of AP-1 factors showed that depletion of only Jun-B attenuated isoproterenol-mediated inhibition of Col II. Transfection with jun-B or c-fos showed selective inhibition of Col II mRNA and a Col II luciferase reporter construct by jun-B. Isoproterenol as well as jun-B overexpression in the chondrocytes also inhibited the expression of Sox-6 mRNA and protein, and depletion of Jun-B abrogated ß(2)-AR inhibition of Sox-6. Collectively, these findings demonstrate regulation of chondrocyte differentiation through ß(2)-AR mediated by ERK1/2 and PKA stimulation of the AP-1 factor Jun-B that inhibits the expression of Sox-6 and Col II.

Sensitivity of Oncogenic KRAS-Expressing Cells to CDK9 Inhibition.

Oncogenic forms of KRAS proteins are known to be drivers of pancreatic, colorectal, and lung cancers. The goal of this study is to identify chemical leads that inhibit oncogenic KRAS signaling. We first developed an isogenic panel of mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) cell lines that carry wild-type RAS, oncogenic KRAS, and oncogenic BRAF. We validated these cell lines by screening against a tool compound library of 1402 annotated inhibitors in an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-based cell viability assay. Subsequently, this MEF panel was used to conduct a high-throughput phenotypic screen in a cell viability assay with a proprietary compound library. All 126 compounds that exhibited a selective activity against mutant KRAS were selected and prioritized based on their activities in secondary assays. Finally, five chemical clusters were chosen. They had specific activity against SW620 and LS513 over Colo320 colorectal cancer cell lines. In addition, they had no effects on BRAFV600E, MEK1, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 (ERK2), phosphoinositide 3-kinase alpha (PI3Kα), AKT1, or mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) as tested in in vitro enzymatic activity assays. Biophysical assays demonstrated that these compounds did not bind directly to KRAS. We further identified the mechanism of action and showed that three of them have CDK9 inhibitory activity. In conclusion, we have developed and validated an isogenic MEF panel that was used successfully to identify RAS oncogenic or wild-type allele-specific vulnerabilities. Furthermore, we identified sensitivity of oncogenic KRAS-expressing cells to CDK9 inhibitors, which warrants future studies of treating KRAS-driven cancers with CDK9 inhibitors.

Parathyroid hormone inhibits phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) ERK1/2 through inhibition of c-Raf and activation of MKP-1 in osteoblastic cells.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) ERK1/2 contributes to PTH regulation of osteoblast growth and apoptosis. We investigated the mechanisms by which PTH inhibits ERK1/2 activity in osteoblastic UMR 106-01 cells. Treatment with PTH significantly inhibited phosphorylated ERK1/2 between 5 and 60 min. Transient transfection of cells with a cDNA encoding MAPK phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) resulted in 30-40% inhibition of pERK1/2; however MKP-1 protein levels were only significantly stimulated by PTH after 30 mins, suggesting another mechanism for the early phase of pERK1/2 inhibition. The active upstream kinase c-Raf phosphorylation at serine 338 (ser(338)) was significantly inhibited by PTH treatment within 5 min and transfection of the cells with constitutively-active c-Raf blocked PTH inhibition of pERK1/2. Inhibition of pERK1/2 and phosphor-c-Raf were seen when cells were treated with PTH(1-34) or PTH(1-31) analogues that stimulate cAMP, but not with PTH(3-34), PTH(7-34) or PTH(18-48) that do not stimulate cAMP. Stimulation of the cells with forskolin or 8BrcAMP also inhibited pERK1/2 and c-Raf.p338. Our results suggest that rapid PTH inhibition of ERK1/2 activity is mediated by PKA dependent inhibition of c-Raf activity and that stimulation of MKP-1 may contribute to maintaining pERK1/2 inhibition over prolonged time.

Beta2-adrenergic receptors expressed on murine chondrocytes stimulate cellular growth and inhibit the expression of Indian hedgehog and collagen type X.

The sympathetic nervous system has been demonstrated to have a role in regulating bone remodeling through beta-adrenergic receptors (beta-AR) expressed on osteoblasts. Studies using beta(2)-adrenergic receptor agonists in vivo have also suggested an effect on endochondral bone development; however, it was not clear if this effect was mediated through osteoblasts or chondrocytes. To more thoroughly examine the role of beta-AR in chondrocytes we characterized the expression and signal transduction systems activated by beta-AR in growth plate chondrocytes prepared from ribs of embryonic E18.5 mice. Using RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry we found that the chondrocytes expressed only beta(2)-AR. The receptors were coupled to stimulation of adenylyl cyclase, phosphorylation of the cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2). Stimulation of ERK1/2 was transient and limited by the concomitant stimulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase (MKP-1). Isoproterenol stimulated the growth of chondrocytes as assessed by increased incorporation of [(3)H]-thymidine into the cells. The cellular expression of two markers of chondrocyte differentiation, Indian hedgehog, expressed in pre-hypertrophic cells and collagen type X, expressed in hypertrophic chondrocytes, were both significantly inhibited after incubation with isoproterenol. Collectively, these findings demonstrate regulation of chondrocytes through beta(2)-AR expressed on the cells that stimulate their growth and inhibit their differentiation, indicating that the sympathetic nervous system may be an important regulator of embryonic cartilage development.

Sp7/Osterix Is Restricted to Bone-Forming Vertebrates where It Acts as a Dlx Co-factor in Osteoblast Specification.

In extant species, bone formation is restricted to vertebrate species. Sp7/Osterix is a key transcriptional determinant of bone-secreting osteoblasts. We performed Sp7 chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing analysis identifying a large set of predicted osteoblast enhancers and validated a subset of these in cell culture and transgenic mouse assays. Sp family members bind GC-rich target sequences through their zinc finger domain. Several lines of evidence suggest that Sp7 acts differently, engaging osteoblast targets in Dlx-containing regulatory complexes bound to AT-rich motifs. Amino acid differences in the Sp7 zinc finger domain reduce Sp7's affinity for the Sp family consensus GC-box target; Dlx5 binding maps to this domain of Sp7. The data support a model in which Dlx recruitment of Sp7 to osteoblast enhancers underlies Sp7-directed osteoblast specification. Because an Sp7-like zinc finger variant is restricted to vertebrates, the emergence of an Sp7 member within the Sp family was likely closely coupled to the evolution of bone-forming vertebrates.

Stk11 (Lkb1) deletion in the osteoblast lineage leads to high bone turnover, increased trabecular bone density and cortical porosity.

The mTOR pathway couples energy homeostasis to growth, division and survival of the cell. Stk11/Lkb1 is a critical serine-threonine protein kinase in the inhibition of mTOR pathway action. In the mammalian skeleton, Stk11 regulates the transition between immature and hypertrophic chondrocytes. Here, we have focused on the action of Stk11in the osteoblast lineage through osteoblast specific-removal of Stk11 activity. In the mouse model system, specification and primary organization of the neonatal boney skeleton is independent of Stk11. However, histological, molecular and micro-CT analysis revealed a marked perturbation of normal bone development evident in the immediate post-natal period. Cortical bone was unusually porous displaying a high rate of turnover with new trabeculae forming in the endosteal space. Trabecular bone also showed enhanced turnover and marked increase in the density of trabeculae and number of osteoclasts. Though mutants showed an expansion of bone volume and trabecular number, their bone matrix comprised large amounts of osteoid and irregularly deposited woven bone highlighted by diffuse fluorochrome labeling. Additionally, we observed an increase in fibroblast-like cells associated with trabecular bone in Stk11 mutants. Stk11 down-regulates mTORC1 activity through control of upstream modulators of the AMP kinase family: an increase in the levels of the phosphorylated ribosomal protein S6, a target of mTORC1-mediated kinase activity, on osteoblast removal of Stk11 suggests deregulated mTORC1 activity contributes to the osteoblast phenotype. These data demonstrate Stk11 activity within osteoblasts is critical for the development of normally structured bone regulating directly the number and coordinated actions of osteoblasts, and indirectly osteoclast number.

Indian hedgehog: its roles and regulation in endochondral bone development.

Normal endochondral bone development requires the coordination of chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation. Indian hedgehog (Ihh) is a morphogen produced by chondrocytes in the early stage of terminal differentiation and plays several key roles in this process. Ihh regulates growth of adjacent proliferative chondrocytes and can also regulate the rate of differentiation of chondrocytes indirectly through its stimulation of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP). In this review, we focus on recent studies that have identified new functions of Ihh and how Ihh itself is being regulated.

Regulation of Indian hedgehog mRNA levels in chondrocytic cells by ERK1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases.

Indian hedgehog (Ihh) is produced by growth plate pre-hypertrophic chondrocytes, and is an important regulator of endochondral ossification. However, little is known about the regulation of Ihh in chondrocytes. We have examined the role of integrins and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases in Ihh mRNA regulation in CFK-2 chondrocytic cells. Cells incubated with the beta1-integrin blocking antibody had decreased Ihh mRNA levels, which was accompanied by decreases of activated extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) and activated p38 MAPK. Ihh mRNA levels were also inhibited by U0126, a specific MEK1/2 inhibitor, or SB203580, a specific p38 MAPK inhibitor. Cells transfected with constitutively active MEK1 or MKK3 had increased Ihh mRNA levels, which were diminished by dominant-negative MEK1, p38alpha or p38beta. Stimulation of the PTH1R with 10(-8) M rPTH (1-34) resulted in dephosphorylation of ERK1/2 that was evident within 15 min and sustained for 1 h, as well as transient dephosphorylation of p38 MAPK that was maximal after 25 min. PTH stimulation decreased Ihh mRNA levels, and this effect was blocked by transfecting the cells with constitutively active MEK1 but not by MKK3. These studies demonstrated that activation of ERK1/2 or p38 MAPK increased Ihh mRNA levels. Stimulation of the PTH1R or blocking of beta1-integrin resulted in inhibition of ERK1/2 and p38 MAPK and decreased levels of Ihh mRNA. Our data demonstrate the central role of MAPK in the regulation of Ihh in CFK-2 cells.