Enhancer-promoter interactions are reconfigured through the formation of long-range multiway hubs as mouse ES cells exit pluripotency.

Enhancers bind transcription factors, chromatin regulators, and non-coding transcripts to modulate the expression of target genes. Here, we report 3D genome structures of single mouse ES cells as they are induced to exit pluripotency and transition through a formative stage prior to undergoing neuroectodermal differentiation. We find that there is a remarkable reorganization of 3D genome structure where inter-chromosomal intermingling increases dramatically in the formative state. This intermingling is associated with the formation of a large number of multiway hubs that bring together enhancers and promoters with similar chromatin states from typically 5-8 distant chromosomal sites that are often separated by many Mb from each other. In the formative state, genes important for pluripotency exit establish contacts with emerging enhancers within these multiway hubs, suggesting that the structural changes we have observed may play an important role in modulating transcription and establishing new cell identities.

3D structures of individual mammalian genomes studied by single-cell Hi-C.

The folding of genomic DNA from the beads-on-a-string-like structure of nucleosomes into higher-order assemblies is crucially linked to nuclear processes. Here we calculate 3D structures of entire mammalian genomes using data from a new chromosome conformation capture procedure that allows us to first image and then process single cells. The technique enables genome folding to be examined at a scale of less than 100 kb, and chromosome structures to be validated. The structures of individual topological-associated domains and loops vary substantially from cell to cell. By contrast, A and B compartments, lamina-associated domains and active enhancers and promoters are organized in a consistent way on a genome-wide basis in every cell, suggesting that they could drive chromosome and genome folding. By studying genes regulated by pluripotency factor and nucleosome remodelling deacetylase (NuRD), we illustrate how the determination of single-cell genome structure provides a new approach for investigating biological processes.

Quantification of DNA-associated proteins inside eukaryotic cells using single-molecule localization microscopy.

Development of single-molecule localization microscopy techniques has allowed nanometre scale localization accuracy inside cells, permitting the resolution of ultra-fine cell structure and the elucidation of crucial molecular mechanisms. Application of these methodologies to understanding processes underlying DNA replication and repair has been limited to defined in vitro biochemical analysis and prokaryotic cells. In order to expand these techniques to eukaryotic systems, we have further developed a photo-activated localization microscopy-based method to directly visualize DNA-associated proteins in unfixed eukaryotic cells. We demonstrate that motion blurring of fluorescence due to protein diffusivity can be used to selectively image the DNA-bound population of proteins. We designed and tested a simple methodology and show that it can be used to detect changes in DNA binding of a replicative helicase subunit, Mcm4, and the replication sliding clamp, PCNA, between different stages of the cell cycle and between distinct genetic backgrounds.

Radar observations of individual rain drops in the free atmosphere.

Atmospheric remote sensing has played a pivotal role in the increasingly sophisticated representation of clouds in the numerical models used to assess global and regional climate change. This has been accomplished because the underlying bulk cloud properties can be derived from a statistical analysis of the returned microwave signals scattered by a diverse ensemble comprised of numerous cloud hydrometeors. A new Doppler radar, previously used to track small debris particles shed from the NASA space shuttle during launch, is shown to also have the capacity to detect individual cloud hydrometeors in the free atmosphere. Similar to the traces left behind on film by subatomic particles, larger cloud particles were observed to leave a well-defined radar signature (or streak), which could be analyzed to infer the underlying particle properties. We examine the unique radar and environmental conditions leading to the formation of the radar streaks and develop a theoretical framework which reveals the regulating role of the background radar reflectivity on their observed characteristics. This main expectation from theory is examined through an analysis of the drop properties inferred from radar and in situ aircraft measurements obtained in two contrasting regions of an observed multicellular storm system. The observations are placed in context of the parent storm circulation through the use of the radar's unique high-resolution waveforms, which allow the bulk and individual hydrometeor properties to be inferred at the same time.

A microfluidic device for the hydrodynamic immobilisation of living fission yeast cells for super-resolution imaging.

We describe a microfluidic device designed specifically for the reversible immobilisation of Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Fission Yeast) cells to facilitate live cell super-resolution microscopy. Photo-Activation Localisation Microscopy (PALM) is used to create detailed super-resolution images within living cells with a modal accuracy of >25 nm in the lateral dimensions. The novel flow design captures and holds cells in a well-defined array with minimal effect on the normal growth kinetics. Cells are held over several hours and can continue to grow and divide within the device during fluorescence imaging.

ALKBH1 is a histone H2A dioxygenase involved in neural differentiation.

AlkB homolog 1 (ALKBH1) is one of nine members of the family of mammalian AlkB homologs. Most Alkbh1(-/-) mice die during embryonic development, and survivors are characterized by defects in tissues originating from the ectodermal lineage. In this study, we show that deletion of Alkbh1 prolonged the expression of pluripotency markers in embryonic stem cells and delayed the induction of genes involved in early differentiation. In vitro differentiation to neural progenitor cells (NPCs) displayed an increased rate of apoptosis in the Alkbh1(-/-) NPCs when compared with wild-type cells. Whole-genome expression analysis and chromatin immunoprecipitation revealed that ALKBH1 regulates both directly and indirectly, a subset of genes required for neural development. Furthermore, our in vitro enzyme activity assays demonstrate that ALKBH1 is a histone dioxygenase that acts specifically on histone H2A. Mass spectrometric analysis demonstrated that histone H2A from Alkbh1(-/-) mice are improperly methylated. Our results suggest that ALKBH1 is involved in neural development by modifying the methylation status of histone H2A.

Unraveling the kinetochore nanostructure in Schizosaccharomyces pombe using multi-color SMLM imaging.

The key to ensuring proper chromosome segregation during mitosis is the kinetochore (KT), a tightly regulated multiprotein complex that links the centromeric chromatin to the spindle microtubules and as such leads the segregation process. Understanding its architecture, function, and regulation is therefore essential. However, due to its complexity and dynamics, only its individual subcomplexes could be studied in structural detail so far. In this study, we construct a nanometer-precise in situ map of the human-like regional KT of Schizosaccharomyces pombe using multi-color single-molecule localization microscopy. We measure each protein of interest (POI) in conjunction with two references, cnp1CENP-A at the centromere and sad1 at the spindle pole. This allows us to determine cell cycle and mitotic plane, and to visualize individual centromere regions separately. We determine protein distances within the complex using Bayesian inference, establish the stoichiometry of each POI and, consequently, build an in situ KT model with unprecedented precision, providing new insights into the architecture.

Calculation of 3D genome structures for comparison of chromosome conformation capture experiments with microscopy: An evaluation of single-cell Hi-C protocols.

Single-cell chromosome conformation capture approaches are revealing the extent of cell-to-cell variability in the organization and packaging of genomes. These single-cell methods, unlike their multi-cell counterparts, allow straightforward computation of realistic chromosome conformations that may be compared and combined with other, independent, techniques to study 3D structure. Here we discuss how single-cell Hi-C and subsequent 3D genome structure determination allows comparison with data from microscopy. We then carry out a systematic evaluation of recently published single-cell Hi-C datasets to establish a computational approach for the evaluation of single-cell Hi-C protocols. We show that the calculation of genome structures provides a useful tool for assessing the quality of single-cell Hi-C data because it requires a self-consistent network of interactions, relating to the underlying 3D conformation, with few errors, as well as sufficient longer-range cis- and trans-chromosomal contacts.

Combining fluorescence imaging with Hi-C to study 3D genome architecture of the same single cell.

Fluorescence imaging and chromosome conformation capture assays such as Hi-C are key tools for studying genome organization. However, traditionally, they have been carried out independently, making integration of the two types of data difficult to perform. By trapping individual cell nuclei inside a well of a 384-well glass-bottom plate with an agarose pad, we have established a protocol that allows both fluorescence imaging and Hi-C processing to be carried out on the same single cell. The protocol identifies 30,000-100,000 chromosome contacts per single haploid genome in parallel with fluorescence images. Contacts can be used to calculate intact genome structures to better than 100-kb resolution, which can then be directly compared with the images. Preparation of 20 single-cell Hi-C libraries using this protocol takes 5 d of bench work by researchers experienced in molecular biology techniques. Image acquisition and analysis require basic understanding of fluorescence microscopy, and some bioinformatics knowledge is required to run the sequence-processing tools described here.

FRET-enhanced photostability allows improved single-molecule tracking of proteins and protein complexes in live mammalian cells.

A major challenge in single-molecule imaging is tracking the dynamics of proteins or complexes for long periods of time in the dense environments found in living cells. Here, we introduce the concept of using FRET to enhance the photophysical properties of photo-modulatable (PM) fluorophores commonly used in such studies. By developing novel single-molecule FRET pairs, consisting of a PM donor fluorophore (either mEos3.2 or PA-JF549) next to a photostable acceptor dye JF646, we demonstrate that FRET competes with normal photobleaching kinetic pathways to increase the photostability of both donor fluorophores. This effect was further enhanced using a triplet-state quencher. Our approach allows us to significantly improve single-molecule tracking of chromatin-binding proteins in live mammalian cells. In addition, it provides a novel way to track the localization and dynamics of protein complexes by labeling one protein with the PM donor and its interaction partner with the acceptor dye.

Virtual-'light-sheet' single-molecule localisation microscopy enables quantitative optical sectioning for super-resolution imaging.

Single-molecule super-resolution microscopy allows imaging of fluorescently-tagged proteins in live cells with a precision well below that of the diffraction limit. Here, we demonstrate 3D sectioning with single-molecule super-resolution microscopy by making use of the fitting information that is usually discarded to reject fluorophores that emit from above or below a virtual-'light-sheet', a thin volume centred on the focal plane of the microscope. We describe an easy-to-use routine (implemented as an open-source ImageJ plug-in) to quickly analyse a calibration sample to define and use such a virtual light-sheet. In addition, the plug-in is easily usable on almost any existing 2D super-resolution instrumentation. This optical sectioning of super-resolution images is achieved by applying well-characterised width and amplitude thresholds to diffraction-limited spots that can be used to tune the thickness of the virtual light-sheet. This allows qualitative and quantitative imaging improvements: by rejecting out-of-focus fluorophores, the super-resolution image gains contrast and local features may be revealed; by retaining only fluorophores close to the focal plane, virtual-'light-sheet' single-molecule localisation microscopy improves the probability that all emitting fluorophores will be detected, fitted and quantitatively evaluated.

The S. pombe histone H2A dioxygenase Ofd2 regulates gene expression during hypoxia.

Post-translational modification of histone proteins are known to play an important role in regulating chromatin structure. In an effort to find additional histone modifications we set out to screen enzymes of the 2-oxoglutarate and Fe(II)-dependent (2-OG-Fe(II)) dioxygenase family for activity towards histones. Here we show that the Schizosaccharomyces pombe 2-OG-Fe(II) dioxygenase domain containing protein-2 (Ofd2) is a histone H2A dioxygenase enzyme. Using a combination of peptide screening and alanine scanning substitution analysis, we identify an HxxLR motif in H2A as a substrate for Ofd2 activity. Transcriptional profiling indicates that Ofd2 regulates the repression of oxidative phosphorylation genes during hypoxic stress. We show that Ofd2 is recruited to the 5' end of oxidative phosphorylation genes specifically during hypoxia and that it uses its dioxygenase activity to regulate their transcription. Together, these data uncover a novel histone H2A modifying activity involved in the regulation of gene expression during hypoxia.

Quantitative single-molecule microscopy reveals that CENP-A(Cnp1) deposition occurs during G2 in fission yeast.

The inheritance of the histone H3 variant CENP-A in nucleosomes at centromeres following DNA replication is mediated by an epigenetic mechanism. To understand the process of epigenetic inheritance, or propagation of histones and histone variants, as nucleosomes are disassembled and reassembled in living eukaryotic cells, we have explored the feasibility of exploiting photo-activated localization microscopy (PALM). PALM of single molecules in living cells has the potential to reveal new concepts in cell biology, providing insights into stochastic variation in cellular states. However, thus far, its use has been limited to studies in bacteria or to processes occurring near the surface of eukaryotic cells. With PALM, one literally observes and 'counts' individual molecules in cells one-by-one and this allows the recording of images with a resolution higher than that determined by the diffraction of light (the so-called super-resolution microscopy). Here, we investigate the use of different fluorophores and develop procedures to count the centromere-specific histone H3 variant CENP-A(Cnp1) with single-molecule sensitivity in fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). The results obtained are validated by and compared with ChIP-seq analyses. Using this approach, CENP-A(Cnp1) levels at fission yeast (S. pombe) centromeres were followed as they change during the cell cycle. Our measurements show that CENP-A(Cnp1) is deposited solely during the G2 phase of the cell cycle.

Genome-wide studies of histone demethylation catalysed by the fission yeast homologues of mammalian LSD1.

In order to gain a more global view of the activity of histone demethylases, we report here genome-wide studies of the fission yeast SWIRM and polyamine oxidase (PAO) domain homologues of mammalian LSD1. Consistent with previous work we find that the two S. pombe proteins, which we name Swm1 and Swm2 (after SWIRM1 and SWIRM2), associate together in a complex. However, we find that this complex specifically demethylates lysine 9 in histone H3 (H3K9) and both up- and down-regulates expression of different groups of genes. Using chromatin-immunoprecipitation, to isolate fragments of chromatin containing either H3K4me2 or H3K9me2, and DNA microarray analysis (ChIP-chip), we have studied genome-wide changes in patterns of histone methylation, and their correlation with gene expression, upon deletion of the swm1(+) gene. Using hyper-geometric probability comparisons we uncover genetic links between lysine-specific demethylases, the histone deacetylase Clr6, and the chromatin remodeller Hrp1. The data presented here demonstrate that in fission yeast the SWIRM/PAO domain proteins Swm1 and Swm2 are associated in complexes that can remove methyl groups from lysine 9 methylated histone H3. In vitro, we show that bacterially expressed Swm1 also possesses lysine 9 demethylase activity. In vivo, loss of Swm1 increases the global levels of both H3K9me2 and H3K4me2. A significant accumulation of H3K4me2 is observed at genes that are up-regulated in a swm1 deletion strain. In addition, H3K9me2 accumulates at some genes known to be direct Swm1/2 targets that are down-regulated in the swm1Delta strain. The in vivo data indicate that Swm1 acts in concert with the HDAC Clr6 and the chromatin remodeller Hrp1 to repress gene expression. In addition, our in vitro analyses suggest that the H3K9 demethylase activity requires an unidentified post-translational modification to allow it to act. Thus, our results highlight complex interactions between histone demethylase, deacetylase and chromatin remodelling activities in the regulation of gene expression.

Oxygen-dependent regulation of hypoxia-inducible factors by prolyl and asparaginyl hydroxylation.

To sustain life mammals have an absolute and continual requirement for oxygen, which is necessary to produce energy for normal cell survival and growth. Hence, maintaining oxygen homeostasis is a critical requirement and mammals have evolved a wide range of cellular and physiological responses to adapt to changes in oxygen availability. In the past few years it has become evident that the transcriptional protein complex hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) is a key regulator of these processes. In this review we will focus on the way oxygen availability regulates HIF proteins and in particular we will discuss the way oxygen-dependent hydroxylation of specific amino acid residues has been demonstrated to regulate HIF function at the level of both protein stability and transcriptional potency.

Asparagine hydroxylation of the HIF transactivation domain a hypoxic switch.

The hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) 1alpha and 2alpha are key mammalian transcription factors that exhibit dramatic increases in both protein stability and intrinsic transcriptional potency during low-oxygen stress. This increased stability is due to the absence of proline hydroxylation, which in normoxia promotes binding of HIF to the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL tumor suppressor) ubiquitin ligase. We now show that hypoxic induction of the COOH-terminal transactivation domain (CAD) of HIF occurs through abrogation of hydroxylation of a conserved asparagine in the CAD. Inhibitors of Fe(II)- and 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases prevented hydroxylation of the Asn, thus allowing the CAD to interact with the p300 transcription coactivator. Replacement of the conserved Asn by Ala resulted in constitutive p300 interaction and strong transcriptional activity. Full induction of HIF-1alpha and -2alpha, therefore, relies on the abrogation of both Pro and Asn hydroxylation, which during normoxia occur at the degradation and COOH-terminal transactivation domains, respectively.

FIH-1 is an asparaginyl hydroxylase enzyme that regulates the transcriptional activity of hypoxia-inducible factor.

Mammalian cells adapt to hypoxic conditions through a transcriptional response pathway mediated by the hypoxia-inducible factor, HIF. HIF transcriptional activity is suppressed under normoxic conditions by hydroxylation of an asparagine residue within its C-terminal transactivation domain, blocking association with coactivators. Here we show that the protein FIH-1, previously shown to interact with HIF, is an asparaginyl hydroxylase. Like known hydroxylase enzymes, FIH-1 is an Fe(II)-dependent enzyme that uses molecular O(2) to modify its substrate. Together with the recently discovered prolyl hydroxylases that regulate HIF stability, this class of oxygen-dependent enzymes comprises critical regulatory components of the hypoxic response pathway.