'Community health workers are unable to work because they don't have supervisors' - mid-level providers' experiences of a CHW program in rural South Africa.

INTRODUCTION: The World Health Organization has called for more than 4 million community health workers (CHWs) globally; yet there are gaps in the evidence of CHWs' impact where studies have not had consistent results. South Africa is currently investing in CHW programs. However, there are significant concerns about the implementation and effectiveness of the program. METHODS: We interviewed mid-level supervisors involved in eight rural clinics in a deeply rural South African municipality to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the CHW programs currently being implemented. Half of these clinics were part of a program providing enhanced supervision to CHWs, and the remainder were operating as usual. We hypothesized that stakeholders would provide valuable insights on how to improve the implementation of CHW programs. Fourteen interviews with supervisors from three levels of clinic and non-governmental organizations were conducted. Interviews were transcribed and translated from isiXhosa to English, and thematically analysed using ATLAS.ti. RESULTS: Two overarching themes emerged: challenges at the national CHW program level (loss of political support, inadequacy of supervision and access to resources, human resource considerations); and experiences of the enhanced-supervision model provided (engagement and buy-in, link between CHW program and healthcare facilities, improvements through the intervention). Our findings suggest that CHWs operate largely unsupported, with limited access to training, equipment and supervision. The enhanced-supervision intervention appeared to mitigate some of these shortfalls. To make CHW programs efficient, we need to recruit CHWs based on social and administrative competence (rather than network referrals), provide improved higher quality training, provide more resources, especially equipment and transport, and ensure that CHWs receive supportive supervision that goes beyond simply administrative supervision. Furthermore, our findings suggest that the intervention in this study has somewhat mitigated these challenges through a package of supportive supervision and additional resources, highlighting the importance of stakeholder engagement and buy-in. It is clear that the governmental CHW program has many challenges - a number of which were temporarily mitigated by the intervention tested in this research's parent study. A list of recommendations for practice was developed from this work. First, contracts and reimbursements are important for CHW motivation, and are seen as essential prerequisites for CHW program success. Second, CHWs and other stakeholders must be involved in the design and implementation of the CHW program. Third, good-quality training and refresher trainings for CHWs is critical. Fourth, access to equipment such as scales is needed. Fifth, transport is critical in rural areas to access patients in remote areas. Lastly, supportive supervision was described as of upmost importance. CONCLUSION: CHWs have the potential to provide invaluable support in communities, and in rural communities in particular - but they need to operate in a functional supportive system. More resources need to be allocated to training, equipment and supportive supervision.

Instructive roles and supportive relationships: client perspectives of their engagement with community health workers in a rural south African home visiting program.

BACKGROUND: Community health worker (CHW) programs have been positioned as a way to meet the needs of those who experience marginalization and inequitable access to health care, and current global health narratives also emphasize their adaptable nature to meet growing health burdens in low-income settings. However, as CHW programs adopt more technical roles, the value of CHWs in building relationships with clients tends to be overlooked. More importantly, these programs are often reframed and redeployed without attending to the interests and needs of program clients themselves. We set out to gather perspectives of program and CHW engagement from clients of a maternal and child health program in rural South Africa. METHODS: We conducted 26 interviews with pregnant or recently-delivered clients of the Enable Mentor Mother program between February-March 2018. After obtaining informed consent, a trained research assistant conducted all interviews in the clients' home language, isiXhosa. Interviews, translated and transcribed into English, were organized and coded using ATLAS.ti software and thematically analyzed. RESULTS: We found that clients' home-based interactions with Mentor Mothers were generally positive, and that these engagements were characterized by two core themes, instructive roles and supportive relationships.. Instructive roles facilitated the transfer of knowledge and uptake of new information for behavior change. Relationships were developed within the home visit setting, but also extended beyond routine visits, especially when clients required further instrumental support. Clients further discussed a sense of agency gained through these interactions, even in cases where they chose not to, or were unable to, heed their Mentor Mother's advice. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the important roles that CHWs can assume in providing both instructive and supportive care to clients; as deepening relationships may be key for encouraging behavior change, these findings pinpoint the need to bolster training and support for CHWs in similar programs. They also emphasize the importance of integrating more channels for client feedback into existing programs, to ensure that clients' voices are heard and accounted for in shaping ongoing engagement within the communities in which these programs operate.

Consistent Provisions Mitigate Exposure to Sexual Risk and HIV Among Young Adolescents in South Africa.

Exposure to sexual risk in early adolescence strongly predicts HIV infection, yet evidence for prevention in young adolescents is limited. We pooled data from two longitudinal South African surveys, with adolescents unexposed to sexual risk at baseline (n = 3662). Multivariable logistic regression tested associations between intermittent/consistent access to eight provisions and reduced sexual risk exposure. Participants were on average 12.8 years, 56% female at baseline. Between baseline and follow-up, 8.6% reported sexual risk exposure. Consistent access to caregiver supervision (OR 0.53 95%CI 0.35-0.80 p = 0.002), abuse-free homes (OR 0.55 95%CI 0.37-0.81 p = 0.002), school feeding (OR 0.55 95%CI 0.35-0.88 p = 0.012), and HIV prevention knowledge (OR 0.43, 95%CI 0.21-0.88 p = 0.021) was strongly associated with preventing early sexual risk exposure. While individual factors reduced the odds of sexual risk exposure, a combination of all four resulted in a greater reduction, from 12.9% (95%CI 7.2-18.7) to 1.0% (95%CI 0.2-1.8). Consistent access to provisions in early adolescence may prevent sexual risk exposure among younger adolescents.

Psychosocial interventions targeting mental health in pregnant adolescents and adolescent parents: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Pregnancy and parenthood are known to be high-risk times for mental health. However, less is known about the mental health of pregnant adolescents or adolescent parents. Despite the substantial literature on the risks associated with adolescent pregnancy, there is limited evidence on best practices for preventing poor mental health in this vulnerable group. This systematic review therefore aimed to identify whether psychosocial interventions can effectively promote positive mental health and prevent mental health conditions in pregnant and parenting adolescents. METHODS: We used the standardized systematic review methodology based on the process outlined in the World Health Organization's Handbook for Guidelines Development. This review focused on randomized controlled trials of preventive psychosocial interventions to promote the mental health of pregnant and parenting adolescents, as compared to treatment as usual. We searched PubMed/Medline, PsycINFO, ERIC, EMBASE and ASSIA databases, as well as reference lists of relevant articles, grey literature, and consultation with experts in the field. GRADE was used to assess the quality of evidence. RESULTS: We included 17 eligible studies (n = 3245 participants). Interventions had small to moderate, beneficial effects on positive mental health (SMD = 0.35, very low quality evidence), and moderate beneficial effects on school attendance (SMD = 0.64, high quality evidence). There was limited evidence for the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions on mental health disorders including depression and anxiety, substance use, risky sexual and reproductive health behaviors, adherence to antenatal and postnatal care, and parenting skills. There were no available data for outcomes on self-harm and suicide; aggressive, disruptive, and oppositional behaviors; or exposure to intimate partner violence. Only two studies included adolescent fathers. No studies were based in low- or middle-income countries. CONCLUSION: Despite the encouraging findings in terms of effects on positive mental health and school attendance outcomes, there is a critical evidence gap related to the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions for improving mental health, preventing disorders, self-harm, and other risk behaviors among pregnant and parenting adolescents. There is an urgent need to adapt and design new psychosocial interventions that can be pilot-tested and scaled with pregnant adolescents and adolescent parents and their extended networks, particularly in low-income settings.

The home visit communication skills inventory: Piloting a tool to measure community health worker fidelity to training in rural South Africa.

Community-based home visiting programs using community health workers (CHWs) have become popular modes of delivering health care services, especially in settings where health workers are overburdened and resources are limited. Yet, little is known about the processes that shape effective implementation in low-resource settings, and whether these processes adhere to home visitors' training. This study used the newly-developed Home Visit Communication Skills Inventory (HCSI) to explore the delivery of a CHW program in rural South Africa. Routine home visits from CHWs to their maternal care clients were audio-recorded with consent, and later transcribed and translated into English. The HCSI, devised and piloted using existing frameworks and program-specific training components, consisted of 21 items covering domains related to active listening, active delivery, and active connecting, and was used to score English transcripts of the home visits. The HCSI was used to generate general frequencies and aggregate scores for each CHW. Eighty-four home visits by 14 CHWs showed a diverse application of communication skills. Active listening and active delivery were common, with fewer instances of active connecting observed. Practices disaggregated by CHW showcased varying strengths by an individual. In reviewing visit characteristics, longer average visit duration was significantly correlated with the presence of multiple types of active connecting skills. While technical skills were widely observed, fewer CHWs engaged in more complex "connecting" skills. The HCSI is a feasible, low-cost, and practical way to describe home visit fidelity among CHWs. Audio-based checklists can be used to describe fidelity to a model in the absence of additional supervisory resources.

Healthcare provisions associated with multiple HIV-related outcomes among adolescent girls and young women living with HIV in South Africa: a cross-sectional study.

INTRODUCTION: Adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) living with HIV experience poor HIV outcomes and high rates of unintended pregnancy. Little is known about which healthcare provisions can optimize their HIV-related outcomes, particularly among AGYW mothers. METHODS: Eligible 12- to 24-year-old AGYW living with HIV from 61 health facilities in a South African district completed a survey in 2018-2019 (90% recruited). Analysing surveys and medical records from n = 774 participants, we investigated associations of multiple HIV-related outcomes (past-week adherence, consistent clinic attendance, uninterrupted treatment, no tuberculosis [TB] and viral suppression) with seven healthcare provisions: no antiretroviral therapy (ART) stockouts, kind and respectful providers, support groups, short travel time, short waiting time, confidentiality, and safe and affordable facilities. Further, we compared HIV-related outcomes and healthcare provisions between mothers (n = 336) and nulliparous participants (n = 438). Analyses used multivariable regression models, accounting for multiple outcomes. RESULTS: HIV-related outcomes were poor, especially among mothers. In multivariable analyses, two healthcare provisions were "accelerators," associated with multiple improved outcomes, with similar results among mothers. Safe and affordable facilities, and kind and respectful staff were associated with higher predicted probabilities of HIV-related outcomes (p<0.001): past-week adherence (62% when neither accelerator was reported to 87% with both accelerators reported), clinic attendance (71%-89%), uninterrupted ART treatment (57%-85%), no TB symptoms (49%-70%) and viral suppression (60%-77%). CONCLUSIONS: Accessible and adolescent-responsive healthcare is critical to improving HIV-related outcomes, reducing morbidity, mortality and onward HIV transmission among AGYW. Combining these provisions can maximize benefits, especially for AGYW mothers.

Development of a school-based programme for mental health promotion and prevention among adolescents in Nepal and South Africa.

Introduction: Adolescence is a critical time for mental health promotion and prevention and establishing healthy behaviours. Implementing universal, school-based psychosocial interventions can improve short- and long-term health trajectories for adolescents. While these interventions may offer important opportunities for fostering skills and relationships, few school-based interventions have been developed for and tested in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where adolescent mental health needs may be significant and under-served. This manuscript details the development of a multi-component, universal school-based intervention, Health Action in ScHools for a Thriving Adolescent Generation (HASHTAG), for adolescents aged 12-15 years in Nepal and South Africa. Methods and results: We describe HASHTAG's development over four phases, combining methods and results as each phase was iteratively conducted between 2018 and 2021. Phase 1 included a systematic review and components analysis, building from WHO guidelines for adolescent mental health. Seven components were strongly supported by the evidence: emotional regulation, stress management, mindfulness, problem-solving, interpersonal skills, assertiveness training, and alcohol and drug education. Phase 2 encompassed site selection, theory of change development, and formative research engagements; research teams in each site engaged adolescents and key adult stakeholders to identify priorities for intervention. Stakeholders voiced preferences for external facilitators and key content and delivery for intervention sessions. These findings informed Phase 3, a draft manual of HASHTAG, including a whole-school component, called Thriving Environment in Schools, and a classroom-based, six-session component, Thrive Together. In Phase 4, participants engaged in consultative workshops to review and contextualise content by country, preparing HASHTAG for implementation in a feasibility trial. Minor adaptations were made in Nepal, including using school nurses and adjusting take-home materials; both country's workshops identified practical considerations for implementing activities. Conclusions: HASHTAG was designed around core evidence-based components to increase translatability across LMICs, while enabling country-specific tailoring to enhance feasibility. Future research will test whether this multi-component, whole-school approach can improve adolescent mental health.

Protocol for the OCAY study: a cohort study of orphanhood and caregiver loss in the COVID-19 era to explore the impact on children and adolescents.

INTRODUCTION: Globally, no person has been untouched by the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet, little attention has been given to children and adolescents in policy, provision and services. Moreover, there is a dearth of knowledge regarding the impact of COVID-19-associated orphanhood and caregiver loss on children. This study aims to provide early insights into the mental health and well-being of children and adolescents experiencing orphanhood or caregiver loss in South Africa. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Data will be drawn from a quantitative longitudinal study in Cape Town, South Africa. A sample of children and adolescents between the ages of 9 and 18 years, experiencing parental or caregiver loss from COVID-19, will be recruited together with a comparison group of children in similar environments who did not experience loss. The study aims to recruit 500 children in both groups. Mental health and well-being among children will be explored through the use of validated and study-specific measures. Participants will be interviewed at two time points, with follow-up data being collected 12-18 months after baseline. A combination of analytical techniques (including descriptive statistics, regression modelling and structural equation modelling) will be used to understand the experience and inform future policy and service provision. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This study received ethical approval from the Health Research Ethics Committee at Stellenbosch University (N 22/04/040). Results will be disseminated via academic and policy publications, as well as national and international presentations including high-level meetings with technical experts. Findings will also be disseminated at a community level via various platforms.

Key normative, legal, and policy considerations for supporting pregnant and postpartum adolescents in high HIV-burden settings: a critical analysis.

Rates of adolescent pregnancy within sub-Saharan Africa are increasing. Adolescent mothers ages 10-19 years face a distinct set of risks to their own and their children's health, compounded by many economic, social, and epidemiological challenges, such as living with HIV. In navigating this complex developmental period, many adolescent mothers face structural barriers impeding safe transitions to adulthood and motherhood. Drawing on existing literature and emerging data, we outline three normative, legal, and policy issues - violence and gender inequity, access to sexual and reproductive health services, and access to social and structural supports - which affect the health, wellbeing and development of adolescent mothers and their children. We also highlight emergent evidence about programming and policy changes that can better support adolescent mothers and their children. These key proposed responses include removing barriers to SRH and HIV service integration; ensuring implementation of return-to-school policies; and extending social protection systems to cater for adolescent mothers. Despite ongoing global crises and shifts in funding priorities, these normative, legal, and policy considerations remain critical to safeguard the health and wellbeing of adolescent mothers and their children.

Two years after lockdown: reviewing the effects of COVID-19 on health services and support for adolescents living with HIV in South Africa.

INTRODUCTION: South Africa's progress towards the 95-95-95 goals has been significantly slower among adolescents living with HIV (ALHIV), among whom antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence, retention in care and viral suppression remain a concern. After 2 years of living with COVID-19, it is important to examine the direct and indirect effects of the pandemic on healthcare resources, access to HIV services and availability of support structures, to assess their impact on HIV care for ALHIV. DISCUSSION: The COVID-19 response in South Africa has shifted healthcare resources towards combatting COVID-19, affecting the quality and availability of HIV services-especially for vulnerable populations, such as ALHIV. The healthcare system's response to COVID-19 has threatened to diminish fragile gains in engaging ALHIV with HIV services, especially as this group relies on overburdened public health facilities for their HIV care. Reallocation of limited health resources utilized by ALHIV disrupted healthcare workers' capacity to form and maintain therapeutic relationships with ALHIV and monitor ALHIV for ART-related side effects, treatment difficulties and mental health conditions, affecting their ability to retain ALHIV in HIV care. Prevailing declines in HIV surveillance meant missed opportunities to identify and manage opportunistic infections and HIV disease progression in adolescents. "Lockdown" restrictions have limited access to healthcare facilities and healthcare workers for ALHIV by reducing clinic appointments and limiting individual movement. ALHIV have had restricted access to social, psychological and educational support structures, including national feeding schemes. This limited access, coupled with reduced opportunities for routine maternal and sexual and reproductive health services, may place adolescent girls at greater risk of transactional sex, child marriages, unintended pregnancy and mother-to-child HIV transmission. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescent HIV care in South Africa is often overlooked; however, ART adherence among ALHIV in South Africa is particularly susceptible to the consequences of a world transformed by COVID-19. The current structures in place to support HIV testing, ART initiation and adherence have been reshaped by disruptions to health structures, new barriers to access health services and the limited available education and psychosocial support systems. Reflecting on these limitations can drive considerations for minimizing these barriers and retaining ALHIV in HIV care.

Enhancing Routine Childhood Vaccination Uptake in the Cape Metropolitan District, South Africa: Perspectives and Recommendations from Point-of-Care Vaccinators.

Vaccination, and particularly childhood vaccination, is widely acknowledged as one of the greatest public health interventions in history. Nevertheless, challenges exist that threaten the progress of childhood vaccination in many parts of the world. We investigated challenges to vaccination experienced by point-of-care vaccinators in the Cape Town Metropolitan District (Cape Metro), and reported on their current and proposed efforts to combat these challenges. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 vaccinators in 16 purposively selected healthcare facilities in the Cape Metro from September to November 2019. Interviews were transcribed and analysed using thematic and narrative analysis methods. Challenges of both the demand and the supply side of routine vaccination were reported by the study participants, as were contextual challenges such as community safety issues. Defaulting was the most common challenge encountered, reported by 16 of the 19 participants. The use of computerized appointment systems, the enlistment of community health workers to track down defaulters, and the use of certificates to incentivize caregivers are part of the creative ways of mitigating some of the challenges encountered by these vaccinators. Their insightful recommendations can positively influence the landscape of childhood vaccination uptake in the Cape Metro and beyond if adapted and applied.

Predictors of secondary HIV transmission risk in a cohort of adolescents living with HIV in South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: Preventing secondary HIV transmission from adolescents and young people living with HIV (AYPLHIV) to their partners and children is critical to interrupting the HIV infection cycle in sub-Saharan Africa. We investigated predictors of secondary HIV transmission risk (past-year sexual risk combined with past-year viremia) among AYPLHIV in South Africa. DESIGN: A prospective cohort of AYLPHIV in South Africa recruited n = 1046 participants in 2014-2015, 93.6% of whom were followed up in 2016-2017 (1.5% mortality). Questionnaires used validated scales where available and biomarkers were extracted from n = 67 health facilities. METHODS: Multivariate logistic regressions tested baseline factors associated with secondary HIV transmission risk, controlling for covariates, with marginal effect modelling combinations. RESULTS: About 14.2% of AYPLHIV reported high secondary HIV transmission risk. High-risk AYPLHIV were more likely to be sexually infected [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.79, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.66-4.68, P < 0.001], and report hunger (aOR 1.93, 95% CI 1.18-3.14, P = 0.008) and substance use (aOR 2.19, 95% CI 1.19-4.02, P = 0.012). They were more likely to be in power-inequitable relationships (aOR 1.77, 95% CI 1.08-2.92, P = 0.025) and be parents (aOR 4.30, 95% CI 2.16-8.57, P < 0.001). Adolescents reporting none of these factors had a 4% probability of secondary transmission risk, rising to 89% probability with all five identified factors. Older age and early sexual debut were also strongly associated with a higher risk of secondary HIV transmission. CONCLUSION: It is essential to identify and support AYPLHIV at a high risk of secondary transmission. Screening for factors such as mode of infection and parenthood during routine healthcare visits could help identify and provide resources to the most at-risk adolescents.

Community health workers' experiences of supervision in maternal and child health programmes in low- and middle-income countries: A qualitative evidence synthesis.

Maternal and child health programmes often use Community Health Workers (CHWs) to help address poor access to health care, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Supervision has long been recognised as a critical ingredient of successful CHW programmes, yet it is often reported as either of poor quality or absent. There is little research on CHWs' own perception of supervision and to the best of our knowledge, there are no reviews synthesising the evidence of CHWs' experiences of supervision. This review identified and synthesised qualitative research evidence about the experiences and perceptions of supervision by CHWs in programmes targeting maternal and child health (MCH) in LMIC. Electronic searches were performed in the following databases: EMBASE, Medline, PsycINFO, ASSIA, ERIC and CINAHL. This review included studies during the period from 2000 to 2021. In total, 10,505 titles were screened for inclusion, of which 177 full-text articles were retrieved and assessed. Ultimately, 19 articles were included in this review. Data extraction was based on the thematic synthesis approach: coding the text of included studies line-by-line; developing descriptive themes; and generating analytical themes. Four themes emerged: (1) frequency of supervision, (2) type of supervision, (3) supervision and motivation and (4) supportive supervision. Careful consideration needs to be taken of the model of supervision used, as primary care facility-based supervisors (usually nurses), although skilled, may not have sufficient time to supervise. Employing supervisors whose sole responsibility is to supervise CHWs may be a good strategy to alleviate these issues. Sufficient time and resources need to be allocated to supervisors and they should be expected to perform regular in-the-field supervision. Involving some aspects of community oversight should also be considered. Supervisor skills and training and the long-term retention of trained supervisors also need to be an important area of focus.

How Do Psychosocial Interventions for Adolescents and Young People Living With HIV Improve Adherence and Viral Load? A Realist Review.

PURPOSE: Psychosocial interventions have the potential to support adolescents and young people living with HIV (AYPLHIV) to achieve better HIV outcomes. However, more evidence is needed to understand which interventions are most effective, and the mechanisms driving how they work in practice. METHODS: We used realist methodologies to generate statements based on evidence from intervention studies and linked evidence included in a systematic review of psychosocial interventions for AYPLHIV. Key data were extracted from available sources to generate cases, including context-mechanism-outcome pathways. Higher level themes were refined iteratively to create a mid-range theory of how these interventions may work. RESULTS: From 26 resulting cases, 8 statements were crafted, grouped into 3 overarching categories, to describe how these interventions worked. Interventions were overall found to set off mechanisms to improve adherence when (1) responding to individual-level factors to support AYPLHIV (via incorporating agency and empowerment, personalized and/or contextualized approaches, and self-care skills); (2) tailoring delivery strategies to address specific needs (via diverse strategies, longer duration, and digital delivery); and (3) providing supportive resources (via peer and broader support, and structural support and integration into existing services). DISCUSSION: A collection of diverse mechanisms may individually or collectively drive improved outcomes for AYPLHIV engaged in psychosocial interventions. Recommendations for integrating our findings into practice are discussed.

Point-of-care vaccinators' perceptions of vaccine hesitancy drivers: A qualitative study from the cape metropolitan district, South Africa.

BACKGROUND: Vaccination coverage remains suboptimal in many parts of the world, especially in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs), including South Africa. Vaccine hesitancy, a recognized factor contributing to low vaccination uptake in many parts of the world, is suspect in the suboptimal vaccination coverage level in South Africa, particularly in the Western Cape Province. We aimed to investigate vaccine hesitancy and to describe point-of-care vaccinators' perceptions of the drivers of vaccine hesitancy in the Cape Metropolitan District, South Africa (Cape Metro). We conducted in-depth interviews with 19 point-of-care vaccinators in 16 purposively selected healthcare facilities in the Cape Metro between September and November 2019. Participants were sampled purposively as 'rich cases' who had been delivering vaccination services for at least five years post-qualification. We organized the data thematically in ATLAS.ti and report findings thematically by the types of reasons participants reported for vaccine hesitancy amongst clients. FINDINGS: Of the 19 interviewees, 11 (59%) reported having encountered vaccine-hesitant clients at some point in their careers. Reasons reported for vaccine hesitancy by clients included: (a) religion, (b) internet misinformation, (c) concern over causing the child pain, (d) natural immunity development, and (e) concern about possible adverse effect following immunization. Vaccine hesitancy in the Cape Metro cuts across all socio-economic classes. Also, some communities perceived to be vaccine-hesitant were mentioned by the participants in this study. CONCLUSIONS: Attitude towards vaccination are generally positive in the Cape Metro. However, vaccine hesitancy is present. The issues of vaccine hesitancy at the reported levels can still be mitigated by continuous health education in the clinics and communities, as well as stakeholder engagement as suggested by the point-of-care vaccinators in the Cape Metro.

Associations between caregiver mental health and young children's behaviour in a rural Kenyan sample.

Background: Research shows that caregiver mental health problems have direct, significant effects on child behaviour. While these risks are amplified in low-resource settings, limited evidence exists from these places, especially sub-Saharan Africa. Objective: We measured associations between caregiver mental health and child behaviour in a rural Kenyan sample, hypothesizing that higher rates of caregiver mental health would be associated with increased child behavioural problems. We also sought to provide an overview of caregiver mental health symptoms in our sample. Method: Cross-sectional data were collected from caregivers of children ages 4-5 years old enrolled in a community-based early child development programme in western Kenya. 465 caregivers were recruited and assessed at baseline, and answered questions about child behaviour, mental health symptoms (depression, anxiety, stress), and help-seeking. A multivariate linear regression model was used to assess significance of each mental health factor. Results: Caregiver anxiety (p = 0.01) and parenting stress (p < 0.001) were significantly associated with child behavioural problems. 245 caregivers (52.9%) had high levels of symptoms of depression, anxiety, or both; furthermore, 101 caregivers (21.7%) scored above the cut-off for both of these scales. A high proportion of our sample (60.6%) reported seeking some formal or informal psychosocial support services; however, less than one-third of these caregivers were symptomatic (30.9%). Conclusion: Anxiety and stress were associated with poorer child behavioural outcomes. Our sample reflected a higher prevalence of caregiving adults with mental health symptomology than previous estimates from Kenya, with few high-symptom caregivers seeking support. We discuss further implications for programming and health services delivery.

Balancing roles and blurring boundaries: Community health workers' experiences of navigating the crossroads between personal and professional life in rural South Africa.

As demand for health services grows, task-shifting to lay health workers has become an attractive solution to address shortages in human resources. Community health workers (CHWs), particularly in low-resource settings, play critical roles in promoting equitable healthcare among underserved populations. However, CHWs often shoulder additional burdens as members of the same communities in which they work. We examined the experiences of a group of CHWs called Mentor Mothers (MMs) working in a maternal and child health programme, navigating the crossroads between personal and professional life in the rural Eastern Cape, South Africa. Semi-structured qualitative interviews (n = 10) were conducted by an experienced isiXhosa research assistant, asking MMs questions about their experiences working in their own communities, and documenting benefits and challenges. Interviews were transcribed and translated into English and thematically coded. Emergent themes include balancing roles (positive, affirming aspects of the role) and blurring boundaries (challenges navigating between professional and personal obligations). While many MMs described empowering clients to seek care and drawing strength from being seen as a respected health worker, others spoke about difficulties in adequately addressing clients' needs, and additional burdens they adopted in their personal lives related to the role. We discuss the implications of these findings, on an immediate level (equipping CHWs with self-care and boundary-setting skills), and an intermediate level (introducing opportunities for structured debriefings and emphasising supportive supervision). We also argue that, at a conceptual level, CHW programmes should provide avenues for professionalisation and invest more up-front in their workforce selection, training and support.

Psychosocial interventions for improving engagement in care and health and behavioural outcomes for adolescents and young people living with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Adolescents and young people comprise a growing proportion of new HIV infections globally, yet current approaches do not effectively engage this group, and adolescent HIV-related outcomes are the poorest among all age groups. Providing psychosocial interventions incorporating psychological, social, and/or behavioural approaches offer a potential pathway to improve engagement in care and health and behavioural outcomes among adolescents and young people living with HIV (AYPLHIV). METHODS: A systematic search of all peer-reviewed papers published between January 2000 and July 2020 was conducted through four electronic databases (Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, PubMed and Scopus). We included randomized controlled trials evaluating psychosocial interventions aimed at improving engagement in care and health and behavioural outcomes of AYPLHIV aged 10 to 24 years. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Thirty relevant studies were identified. Studies took place in the United States (n = 18, 60%), sub-Saharan Africa (Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe) and Southeast Asia (Thailand). Outcomes of interest included adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART), ART knowledge, viral load data, sexual risk behaviours, sexual risk knowledge, retention in care and linkage to care. Overall, psychosocial interventions for AYPLHIV showed important, small-to-moderate effects on adherence to ART (SMD = 0.3907, 95% CI: 0.1059 to 0.6754, 21 studies, n = 2647) and viral load (SMD = -0.2607, 95% CI -04518 to -0.0696, 12 studies, n = 1566). The psychosocial interventions reviewed did not demonstrate significant impacts on retention in care (n = 8), sexual risk behaviours and knowledge (n = 13), viral suppression (n = 4), undetectable viral load (n = 5) or linkage to care (n = 1) among AYPLHIV. No studies measured transition to adult services. Effective interventions employed various approaches, including digital and lay health worker delivery, which hold promise for scaling interventions in the context of COVID-19. CONCLUSIONS: This review highlights the potential of psychosocial interventions in improving health outcomes in AYPLHIV. However, more research needs to be conducted on interventions that can effectively reduce sexual risk behaviours of AYPLHIV, as well as those that can strengthen engagement in care. Further investment is needed to ensure that these interventions are cost-effective, sustainable and resilient in the face of resource constraints and global challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Adolescent mothers affected by HIV and their children: A scoping review of evidence and experiences from sub-Saharan Africa.

While adolescents have received increasing attention in the global HIV response and international strategies and commitments, adolescent mothers and their children remain largely overlooked in research, funding and, programming for health-related outcomes. We conducted an extensive scoping review of current evidence on the experiences of adolescent mothers affected by HIV and their children in this region. We included published literature and conference abstracts, complemented by consultations with key stakeholders, and a review of documents through grey literature searching. First, we summarise the experiences of adolescent mothers and their children related to HIV and key health and development indicators. The syndemic of early motherhood and HIV in sub-Saharan Africa increases the vulnerability of adolescent mothers and their children. We then highlight lessons from a series of promising programmes focused on supporting adolescent mothers through novel approaches. In sub-Saharan Africa, supporting adolescent mothers living in high HIV-risk communities is critical not only to eliminate HIV/AIDS, but also to attain the Sustainable Development Goals. While research on and programming for adolescent mothers and their children is growing, the complex needs for this vulnerable group remain unmet. We conclude with evidence gaps and programming priorities for adolescent mothers affected by HIV and their children.

How do pregnant women and new mothers navigate and respond to challenges in accessing health care? Perspectives from rural South Africa.

Women in low- and middle-income countries and in contexts characterized by inequality face various interpersonal and structural barriers when accessing formal maternal and child health (MCH) services. These barriers persist even in contexts where programs to increase access to services, such as community health worker (CHW) interventions, have been implemented. However, while barriers to accessing care have been extensively documented, less is known about the diverse ways that women respond to, and navigate, these situations. This study explores strategies pregnant women and new mothers use to navigate and respond to health care barriers in a rural district in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Twenty-six pregnant or recently delivered clients of the Enable Mentor Mother program were interviewed about their experiences of accessing formal MCH services. Interviews were conducted between February-March 2018 by an experienced isiXhosa-speaking research assistant, translated and transcribed into English, with transcripts coded and organized by themes using ATLAS.ti software. Facing resource shortages, inconsistent communication, and long travel times to clinics, participants employed diverse, innovative strategies to navigate interpersonal and structural barriers to care. While some participants chose to respond to barriers more passively-citing endurance and acceptance as practices of health system engagement-those participants who focused more on active responses tended to leverage their education, existing relationships, and available community resources to overcome barriers. Nevertheless, most participants described feelings of frustration and dejection. While CHW interventions may alleviate some of the burdens facing fragile health care systems in these contexts, these programs still rely on an underlying infrastructure of care that primary health care clinics and hospitals should be providing. Future programming should work in tandem with formal health systems and should support staff to improve quality of care provided to pregnant women, new mothers, and their infants to prioritize their health at a time of vulnerability.