Advancing Biological Understanding and Therapeutics Discovery with Small-Molecule Probes.

Small-molecule probes can illuminate biological processes and aid in the assessment of emerging therapeutic targets by perturbing biological systems in a manner distinct from other experimental approaches. Despite the tremendous promise of chemical tools for investigating biology and disease, small-molecule probes were unavailable for most targets and pathways as recently as a decade ago. In 2005, the NIH launched the decade-long Molecular Libraries Program with the intent of innovating in and broadening access to small-molecule science. This Perspective describes how novel small-molecule probes identified through the program are enabling the exploration of biological pathways and therapeutic hypotheses not otherwise testable. These experiences illustrate how small-molecule probes can help bridge the chasm between biological research and the development of medicines but also highlight the need to innovate the science of therapeutic discovery.

A selective inhibitor of the sperm-specific potassium channel SLO3 impairs human sperm function.

To fertilize an oocyte, the membrane potential of both mouse and human sperm must hyperpolarize (become more negative inside). Determining the molecular mechanisms underlying this hyperpolarization is vital for developing new contraceptive methods and detecting causes of idiopathic male infertility. In mouse sperm, hyperpolarization is caused by activation of the sperm-specific potassium (K+) channel SLO3 [C. M. Santi et al., FEBS Lett. 584, 1041-1046 (2010)]. In human sperm, it has long been unclear whether hyperpolarization depends on SLO3 or the ubiquitous K+ channel SLO1 [N. Mannowetz, N. M. Naidoo, S. A. S. Choo, J. F. Smith, P. V. Lishko, Elife 2, e01009 (2013), C. Brenker et al., Elife 3, e01438 (2014), and S. A. Mansell, S. J. Publicover, C. L. R. Barratt, S. M. Wilson, Mol. Hum. Reprod. 20, 392-408 (2014)]. In this work, we identified the first selective inhibitor for human SLO3-VU0546110-and showed that it completely blocked heterologous SLO3 currents and endogenous K+ currents in human sperm. This compound also prevented sperm from hyperpolarizing and undergoing hyperactivated motility and induced acrosome reaction, which are necessary to fertilize an egg. We conclude that SLO3 is the sole K+ channel responsible for hyperpolarization and significantly contributes to the fertilizing ability of human sperm. Moreover, SLO3 is a good candidate for contraceptive development, and mutation of this gene is a possible cause of idiopathic male infertility.

Discovery and Characterization of VU0542270, the First Selective Inhibitor of Vascular Kir6.1/SUR2B KATP Channels.

Vascular smooth muscle KATP channels critically regulate blood flow and blood pressure by modulating vascular tone and therefore represent attractive drug targets for treating several cardiovascular disorders. However, the lack of potent inhibitors that can selectively inhibit Kir6.1/SUR2B (vascular KATP) over Kir6.2/SUR1 (pancreatic KATP) has eluded discovery despite decades of intensive research. We therefore screened 47,872 chemically diverse compounds for novel inhibitors of heterologously expressed Kir6.1/SUR2B channels. The most potent inhibitor identified in the screen was an N-aryl-N'-benzyl urea compound termed VU0542270. VU0542270 inhibits Kir6.1/SUR2B with an IC50 of approximately 100 nM but has no apparent activity toward Kir6.2/SUR1 or several other members of the Kir channel family at doses up to 30 µM (>300-fold selectivity). By expressing different combinations of Kir6.1 or Kir6.2 with SUR1, SUR2A, or SUR2B, the VU0542270 binding site was localized to SUR2. Initial structure-activity relationship exploration around VU0542270 revealed basic texture related to structural elements that are required for Kir6.1/SUR2B inhibition. Analysis of the pharmacokinetic properties of VU0542270 showed that it has a short in vivo half-life due to extensive metabolism. In pressure myography experiments on isolated mouse ductus arteriosus vessels, VU0542270 induced ductus arteriosus constriction in a dose-dependent manner similar to that of the nonspecific KATP channel inhibitor glibenclamide. The discovery of VU0542270 provides conceptual proof that SUR2-specific KATP channel inhibitors can be developed using a molecular target-based approach and offers hope for developing cardiovascular therapeutics targeting Kir6.1/SUR2B. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Small-molecule inhibitors of vascular smooth muscle KATP channels might represent novel therapeutics for patent ductus arteriosus, migraine headache, and sepsis; however, the lack of selective channel inhibitors has slowed progress in these therapeutic areas. Here, this study describes the discovery and characterization of the first vascular-specific KATP channel inhibitor, VU0542270.

Rapid sp3-Enriched Scaffold Generation via a Selective Aziridine Amide Ring-Opening Reaction.

Sp3-enriched small molecules play a critical role in developing drug candidates. While designing analogues with greater sp3 character, a methodology utilizing a less explored cyclic-aziridine amide ring-opening reaction to generate sp3-enriched scaffolds has been developed and reported. This methodology enables rapid access to substructures with higher fsp3 values, attracting greater attention within the past few decades. The reaction exhibits a wide reaction scope, featuring a highly sterically hindered phenolic ether, thiophenolic ethers, protected aniline formations, and aliphatic/heteroaromatic ring-containing aziridine amides as substrates. Additionally, this reaction provides access to congested tertiary ether formations through regioselective transformation, applicable to an extensive range of drug discovery targets, construction of complex small molecules, and natural product syntheses. The scaffolds developed show improved physicochemical properties.

Development of a Selective and High Affinity Radioligand, [3H]VU6013720, for the M4 Muscarinic Receptor.

M4 muscarinic receptors are highly expressed in the striatum and cortex, brain regions that are involved in diseases such as Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and dystonia. Despite potential therapeutic advantages of specifically targeting the M4 receptor, it has been historically challenging to develop highly selective ligands, resulting in undesired off-target activity at other members of the muscarinic receptor family. Recently, we have reported first-in-class, potent, and selective M4 receptor antagonists. As an extension of that work, we now report the development and characterization of a radiolabeled M4 receptor antagonist, [3H]VU6013720, with high affinity (pKd of 9.5 ± 0.2 at rat M4, 9.7 at mouse M4, and 10 ± 0.1 at human M4 with atropine to define nonspecific binding) and no significant binding at the other muscarinic subtypes. Binding assays using this radioligand in rodent brain tissues demonstrate loss of specific binding in Chrm4 knockout animals. Dissociation kinetics experiments with various muscarinic ligands show differential effects on the dissociation of [3H]VU6013720 from M4 receptors, suggesting a binding site that is overlapping but may be distinct from the orthosteric site. Overall, these results demonstrate that [3H]VU6013720 is the first highly selective antagonist radioligand for the M4 receptor, representing a useful tool for studying the basic biology of M4 as well for the support of M4 receptor-based drug discovery. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This manuscript describes the development and characterization of a novel muscarinic (M) acetylcholine subtype 4 receptor antagonist radioligand, [3H]VU6013720. This ligand binds to or overlaps with the acetylcholine binding site, providing a highly selective radioligand for the M4 receptor that can be used to quantify M4 protein expression in vivo and probe the selective interactions of acetylcholine with M4 versus the other members of the muscarinic receptor family.

Differential activity of mGlu7 allosteric modulators provides evidence for mGlu7/8 heterodimers at hippocampal Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses.

Glutamate acts at eight metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor subtypes expressed in a partially overlapping fashion in distinct brain circuits. Recent evidence indicates that specific mGlu receptor protomers can heterodimerize and that these heterodimers can exhibit different pharmacology when compared to their homodimeric counterparts. Group III mGlu agonist-induced suppression of evoked excitatory potentials and induction of long-term potentiation at Schaffer collateral-CA1 (SC-CA1) synapses in the rodent hippocampus can be blocked by the selective mGlu7 negative allosteric modulator (NAM), ADX71743. Curiously, a different mGlu7 NAM, 6-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5-methyl-3-pyridin-4-ylisoxazonolo[4,5-c]pyridin-4(5H)-one, failed to block these responses in brain slices despite its robust activity at mGlu7 homodimers in vitro. We hypothesized that this might result from heterodimerization of mGlu7 with another mGlu receptor protomer and focused on mGlu8 as a candidate given the reported effects of mGlu8-targeted compounds in the hippocampus. Here, we used complemented donor acceptor-resonance energy transfer to study mGlu7/8 heterodimer activation in vitro and observed that ADX71743 blocked responses of both mGlu7/7 homodimers and mGlu7/8 heterodimers, whereas 6-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5-methyl-3-pyridin-4-ylisoxazonolo[4,5-c]pyridin-4(5H)-one only antagonized responses of mGlu7/7 homodimers. Taken together with our electrophysiology observations, these results suggest that a receptor with pharmacology consistent with an mGlu7/8 heterodimer modulates the activity of SC-CA1 synapses. Building on this hypothesis, we identified two additional structurally related mGlu7 NAMs that also differ in their activity at mGlu7/8 heterodimers, in a manner consistent with their ability to inhibit synaptic transmission and plasticity at SC-CA1. Thus, we propose that mGlu7/8 heterodimers are a key molecular target for modulating the activity of hippocampal SC-CA1 synapses.

Ventral Tegmental Area M5 Muscarinic Receptors Mediate Effort-Choice Responding and Nucleus Accumbens Dopamine in a Sex-Specific Manner .

Optimization of effort-related choices is impaired in depressive disorders. Acetylcholine (ACh) and dopamine (DA) are linked to depressive disorders, and modulation of ACh tone in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) affects mood-related behavioral responses in rats. However, it is unknown if VTA ACh mediates effort-choice behaviors. Using a task of effort-choice, rats can choose to lever press on a fixed-ratio 5 (FR5) schedule for a more-preferred food or consume freely available, less-preferred food. VTA administration of physostigmine (1 µg and 2 µg/side), a cholinesterase inhibitor, reduced FR5 responding for the more-preferred food while leaving consumption of the less-preferred food intact. VTA infusion of the M5 muscarinic receptor negative allosteric modulator VU6000181 (3 µM, 10 µM, 30 µM/side) did not affect lever pressing or chow consumption. However, VU6000181 (30 µM/side) coadministration with physostigmine (2 µg/side) attenuated physostigmine-induced decrease in lever pressing in female and male rats and significantly elevated lever pressing above vehicle baseline levels in male rats. In in vivo voltammetry experiments, VTA infusion of combined physostigmine and VU6000181 did not significantly alter evoked phasic DA release in the nucleus accumbens core (NAc) in female rats. In male rats, combined VTA infusion of physostigmine and VU6000181 increased phasic evoked DA release in the NAc compared with vehicle, physostigmine, or VU6000181 infusion alone. These data indicate a critical role and potential sex differences of VTA M5 receptors in mediating VTA cholinergic effects on effort choice behavior and regulation of DA release. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Effort-choice impairments are observed in depressive disorders, which are often treatment resistant to currently available thymoleptics. The role of ventral tegmental area (VTA) acetylcholine muscarinic M5 receptors, in a preclinical model of effort-choice behavior, is examined. Using the selective negative allosteric modulator of the M5 receptor VU6000181, we show the role of VTA M5 receptors on effort-choice and regulation of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens core. This study supports M5 receptors as therapeutic targets for depression.

Persistent challenges in the development of an mGlu7 PAM in vivo tool compound: The discovery of VU6046980.

Herein, we report on the further chemical optimization of the first reported mGlu7 positive allosteric modulator (PAM), VU6027459. Replacement of the quinoline core by a cinnoline scaffold increased mGlu7 PAM potency by âˆ¼ 10-fold, and concomitant introduction of a chiral tricyclic motif led to potent mGlu7 PAMs with enantioselective mGlu receptor selectivity profiles. Of these, VU6046980 emerged as a putative in vivo tool compound with excellent CNS penetration (Kp = 4.1; Kp,uu = 0.7) and efficacy in preclinical models. However, either off-target activity at the sigma-1 receptor or activity at a target not elucidated by large ancillary pharmacology panels led to sedation not driven by activation of mGlu7 (validated in Grm7 knockout mice). Thus, despite a significant advance, a viable mGlu7 PAM in vivo tool remains elusive.

Synthesis and SAR of a novel Kir6.2/SUR1 channel opener scaffold identified by HTS.

Kir6.2/SUR1 is an ATP-regulated potassium channel that acts as an intracellular metabolic sensor, controlling insulin and appetite-stimulatory neuropeptides secretion. In this Letter, we present the SAR around a novel Kir6.2/SUR1 channel opener scaffold derived from an HTS screening campaign. New series of compounds with tractable SAR trends and favorable potencies are reported.

Alkylation of NH-sulfoximines under Mitsunobu-type conditions.

Previously described approaches for the alkylation of NH-sulfoximines typically rely either on transition metal catalysis, or the use of traditional alkylation reagents and strong bases. Herein, we report a straightforward alkylation of diverse NH-sulfoximines under simple Mitsunobu-type conditions, despite the unusually high pKa of the NH center.

VU6036720: The First Potent and Selective In Vitro Inhibitor of Heteromeric Kir4.1/5.1 Inward Rectifier Potassium Channels.

Heteromeric Kir4.1/Kir5.1 (KCNJ10/KCNJ16) inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channels play key roles in the brain and kidney, but pharmacological tools for probing their physiology and therapeutic potential have not been developed. Here, we report the discovery, in a high-throughput screening of 80,475 compounds, of the moderately potent and selective inhibitor VU0493690, which we selected for characterization and chemical optimization. VU0493690 concentration-dependently inhibits Kir4.1/5.1 with an IC50 of 0.96 µM and exhibits at least 10-fold selectivity over Kir4.1 and ten other Kir channels. Multidimensional chemical optimization of VU0493690 led to the development of VU6036720, the most potent (IC50 = 0.24 µM) and selective (>40-fold over Kir4.1) Kir4.1/5.1 inhibitor reported to date. Cell-attached patch single-channel recordings revealed that VU6036720 inhibits Kir4.1/5.1 activity through a reduction of channel open-state probability and single-channel current amplitude. Elevating extracellular potassium ion by 20 mM shifted the IC50 6.8-fold, suggesting that VU6036720 is a pore blocker that binds in the ion-conduction pathway. Mutation of the "rectification controller" asparagine 161 to glutamate (N161E), which is equivalent to small-molecule binding sites in other Kir channels, led to a strong reduction of inhibition by VU6036720. Renal clearance studies in mice failed to show a diuretic response that would be consistent with inhibition of Kir4.1/5.1 in the renal tubule. Drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics profiling revealed that high VU6036720 clearance and plasma protein binding may prevent target engagement in vivo. In conclusion, VU6036720 represents the current state-of-the-art Kir4.1/5.1 inhibitor that should be useful for probing the functions of Kir4.1/5.1 in vitro and ex vivo. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Heteromeric inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channels comprising Kir4.1 and Kir5.1 subunits play important roles in renal and neural physiology and may represent inhibitory drug targets for hypertension and edema. Herein, we employ high-throughput compound library screening, patch clamp electrophysiology, and medicinal chemistry to develop and characterize the first potent and specific in vitro inhibitor of Kir4.1/5.1, VU6036720, which provides proof-of-concept that drug-like inhibitors of this channel may be developed.

Development and profiling of mGlu7 NAMs with a range of saturable inhibition of agonist responses in vitro.

We describe here a series of metabotropic glutamate receptor 7 (mGlu7) negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) with a saturable range of activity in inhibiting responses to an orthosteric agonist in two distinct in vitro pharmacological assays. The range of inhibition among compounds in this scaffold provides highly structurally related ligands with differential degrees of receptor blockade that can be used to understand inhibitory efficacy profiles in native tissue or in vivo.

Synthesis and characterization of chiral 6-azaspiro[2.5]octanes as potent and selective antagonists of the M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor.

In this manuscript, we report a series of chiral 6-azaspiro[2.5]octanes and related spirocycles as highly potent and selective antagonists of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype 4 (mAChR4). Chiral separation and subsequent X-ray crystallographic analysis of early generation analogs revealed the R enantiomer to possess excellent human and rat M4 potency, and further structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies on this chiral scaffold led to the discovery of VU6015241 (compound 19). Compound 19 is characterized by high M4 potency and selectivity across multiple species, excellent aqueous solubility, and moderate brain exposure in rodents after intraperitoneal administration.

Discovery of a potent M5 antagonist with improved clearance profile. Part 2: Pyrrolidine amide-based antagonists.

This Letter describes our ongoing effort to improve the clearance of selective M5 antagonists. Herein, we report the replacement of the previously disclosed piperidine amide (4, disclosed in Part 1) with a pyrrolidine amide core. Several compounds within this series provided good potency, subtype selectivity, and low to moderate clearance profiles. Interestingly, the left-hand side SAR for this series diverged from our earlier efforts.

Discovery of a potent M5 antagonist with improved clearance profile. Part 1: Piperidine amide-based antagonists.

The lack of potent and selective tool compounds with pharmaceutically favorable properties limits the in vivo understanding of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype 5 (M5) biology. Previously, we presented a highly potent and selective M5 antagonist VU6019650 with a suboptimal clearance profile as our second-generation tool compound. Herein, we disclose our ongoing efforts to generate next-generation M5 antagonists with improved clearance profiles. A mix and match approach between VU6019650 (lead) and VU0500325 (HTS hit) generated a piperidine amide-based novel M5 antagonist series. Several analogs within this series, including 29f, provided good on-target potency with improved clearance profiles, though room for improvement remains.

Effects of acute and repeated administration of the selective M4 PAM VU0152099 on cocaine versus food choice in male rats.

Ligands that stimulate muscarinic acetylcholine receptors 1 and 4 (M1 , M4 ) have shown promising effects as putative pharmacotherapy for cocaine use disorder in rodent assays. We have previously shown reductions in cocaine effects with acute M4 stimulation, as well as long-lasting, delayed reductions in cocaine taking and cocaine seeking with combined M1 /M4 receptor stimulation or with M1 stimulation alone. M4 stimulation opposes dopaminergic signalling acutely, but direct dopamine receptor antagonists have proved unhelpful in managing cocaine use disorder because they lose efficacy with long-term administration. It is therefore critical to determine whether M4 approaches themselves can remain effective with repeated or chronic dosing. We assessed the effects of repeated administration of the M4 positive allosteric modulator (PAM) VU0152099 in rats trained to choose between intravenous cocaine and a liquid food reinforcer to obtain quantitative measurement of whether M4 stimulation could produce delayed and lasting reduction in cocaine taking. VU0152099 produced progressively augmenting suppression of cocaine choice and cocaine intake, but produced neither rebound nor lasting effects after treatment ended. To compare and contrast effects of M1 versus M4 stimulation, we tested whether the M4 PAM VU0152100 suppressed cocaine self-administration in mice lacking CalDAG-GEFI signalling factor, required for M1 -mediated suppression of cocaine self-administration. CalDAG-GEFI ablation had no effect on M4 -mediated suppression of cocaine self-administration. These findings support the potential usefulness of M4 PAMs as pharmacotherapy to manage cocaine use disorder, alone or in combination with M1 -selective ligands, and show that M1 and M4 stimulation modulate cocaine-taking behaviour by distinct mechanisms.

Crystal structure of the M5 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor.

The human M5 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) has recently emerged as an exciting therapeutic target for treating a range of disorders, including drug addiction. However, a lack of structural information for this receptor subtype has limited further drug development and validation. Here we report a high-resolution crystal structure of the human M5 mAChR bound to the clinically used inverse agonist, tiotropium. This structure allowed for a comparison across all 5 mAChR family members that revealed important differences in both orthosteric and allosteric sites that could inform the rational design of selective ligands. These structural studies, together with chimeric swaps between the extracellular regions of the M2 and M5 mAChRs, provided structural insight into kinetic selectivity, where ligands show differential residency times between related family members. Collectively, our study provides important insights into the nature of orthosteric and allosteric ligand interaction across the mAChR family that could be exploited for the design of selective drugs.

Activation of the mGlu1 metabotropic glutamate receptor has antipsychotic-like effects and is required for efficacy of M4 muscarinic receptor allosteric modulators.

Recent clinical and preclinical studies suggest that selective activators of the M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor have potential as a novel treatment for schizophrenia. M4 activation inhibits striatal dopamine release by mobilizing endocannabinoids, providing a mechanism for local effects on dopamine signaling in the striatum but not in extrastriatal areas. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) typically induce endocannabinoid release through activation of Gαq/11-type G proteins whereas M4 transduction occurs through Gαi/o-type G proteins. We now report that the ability of M4 to inhibit dopamine release and induce antipsychotic-like effects in animal models is dependent on co-activation of the Gαq/11-coupled mGlu1 subtype of metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor. This is especially interesting in light of recent findings that multiple loss of function single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the human gene encoding mGlu1 (GRM1) are associated with schizophrenia, and points to GRM1/mGlu1 as a gene within the "druggable genome" that could be targeted for the treatment of schizophrenia. Herein, we report that potentiation of mGlu1 signaling following thalamo-striatal stimulation is sufficient to inhibit striatal dopamine release, and that a novel mGlu1 positive allosteric modulator (PAM) exerts robust antipsychotic-like effects through an endocannabinoid-dependent mechanism. However, unlike M4, mGlu1 does not directly inhibit dopamine D1 receptor signaling and does not reduce motivational responding. Taken together, these findings highlight a novel mechanism of cross talk between mGlu1 and M4 and demonstrate that highly selective mGlu1 PAMs may provide a novel strategy for the treatment of positive symptoms associated with schizophrenia.

Discovery of a novel class of heteroaryl-pyrrolidinones as positive allosteric modulators of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1.

This Letter describes the synthesis and optimization of a series of heteroaryl-pyrrolidinone positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1 (mAChR M1). Through the continued optimization of M1 PAM tool compound VU0453595, with a focus on replacement of the 6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[3,4-b]pyridin-5-one with a wide variety of alternative 4,5-dihydropyrrolo-fused heteroaromatics, the generation of M1 PAMs with structurally novel chemotypes is disclosed. Two compounds from these subseries, 8b (VU6005610) and 20a (VU6005852), show robust selectivity for the M1 mAChR, and no M1 agonism. Both compounds have favorable preliminary PK profiles in vitro;8b additionally demonstrates high brain exposure in a rodent IV cassette model.

Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) of the group II metabotropic glutamate receptors: Design, synthesis, and evaluation as ex-vivo tool compounds.

This letter describes synthesis and evaluation of two series of dual mGlu2/mGlu3 positive allosteric modulators with moderate mGlu3 potency and robust mGlu2 potency in thallium flux assays. These compounds were profiled their ability to modulate mGlu3-mediated signaling in central neurons by co-application of a selective mGlu2 NAM to isolate mGlu3-selective effects. Using acute mouse brain slices from the prefrontal cortex, potentiation of group II mGlu receptor agonist Ca2+ signaling in PFC pyramidal cells with either the dual mGlu2/mGlu3 PAM 16e or 23d demonstrated effects mediated selectively via mGlu3.