The Role of Computerized Clinical Decision Support in Reducing Inappropriate Medication Administration During Epidural Therapy.

Background: The use of epidural anesthesia has been shown to improve outcomes in the postoperative setting. To minimize risk of complications, avoiding certain medications with epidural anesthesia is advised. Objective: This study sought to determine the role of a computerized clinical decision support module implemented into the computerized physician order entry (CPOE) system on the incidence of administration of medications known to increase complications with epidural anesthesia. Methods: This study was a retrospective cohort chart review in adult patients receiving epidural anesthesia for at least 1 day. Patients were identified retrospectively and divided into 2 cohorts, those receiving an epidural 3 months prior to initiation of the module and those receiving an epidural 3 months following implementation. The primary end point was incidence of inappropriate medication administration before and after implementation. Complications of therapy were collected as secondary end points. Results: There was a reduction in the incidence of inappropriate medication administration in the postimplementation group versus the preimplementation group (6.3% vs 12.8%) although statistical significance was not achieved. In addition, the incidence of enoxaparin administration was significantly lower postimplementation than the preimplementation (0% vs 3.9%). There were no significant differences in other complications of therapy. Conclusions: This study demonstrated that application of decision support for this high-risk procedural population was able to eliminate the incidence of the most common inappropriate medication for epidural analgesia, enoxaparin. A reduction in incidence of other inappropriate medications was also observed; however, statistical significance was not reached. The use of computerized clinical decision support can be a powerful tool in reducing or ameliorating medication errors, and further study will be required to determine the most appropriate and effective implementation strategies.

Emerging options for thromboprophylaxis after orthopedic surgery: a review of clinical data.

In four randomized, controlled studies of patients undergoing orthopedic surgery, the antithrombotic efficacy and safety of subcutaneous fondaparinux 2.5 mg once/day were compared with those of subcutaneous enoxaparin regimens that were approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. In patients undergoing elective hip replacement surgery, fondaparinux significantly reduced the frequency of venous thromboembolism (VTE). However, in a second trial that compared fondaparinux with enoxaparin 30 mg twice/day beginning 12-24 hours after surgery, a 26% risk reduction in favor of fondaparinux was not statistically significant. In patients undergoing elective knee replacement surgery, fondaparinux significantly reduced the risk of VTE compared with enoxaparin without increasing the risk of clinically relevant bleeding, although the risk of major bleeding defined by the bleeding index was significantly higher with fondaparinux. Fondaparinux was superior to enoxaparin 40 mg once/day in the setting of hip fracture surgery, with no increased risk of major bleeding. Meta-analysis of the four studies confirms the superior antithrombotic efficacy of fondaparinux over enoxaparin in orthopedic surgery and suggests that the risk of major bleeding is similar to that of enoxaparin when the first dose of fondaparinux is given at least 6 hours after surgery.

Pharmacoeconomic considerations.

Pharmacoeconomic analyses can be readily applied to the study of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in the orthopedic postsurgical setting. The cost of VTE to the health care system and a cost-effectiveness trial that utilized a factor Xa inhibitor for VTE prophylaxis are discussed. The rationale for preventing VTE can be justified by its high frequency, asymptomatic nature, and high morbidity and mortality that result from unprevented thromboemboli. However, the economic burden that results from VTE is indeed significant. More effective antithrombotic prophylaxis would reduce the occurrence of VTE, the incidence of complications, and subsequent costs. Previous pharmacoeconomic analyses underscore the financial burden VTE places on the health care system in terms of increased length of hospital stay, time spent in the intensive care unit, and mean total cost. Trial-based and effectiveness-based analyses were utilized to compare the cost-effectiveness of a 7-day regimen of fondaparinux (2.5 mg once daily) and enoxaparin (30 mg twice daily). In the trial-based analysis, fondaparinux was estimated to prevent 15.1 thromboembolic events per 1000 patients at three months compared with enoxaparin; fondaparinux produced cost savings per patient at 30 days, 3 months, and 5 years postdischarge. In the effectiveness analysis, fondaparinux was estimated to prevent 17.7 thromboembolic events per 1000 patients at 3 months compared with enoxaparin; fondaparinux produced cost savings per patient at discharge, 1 month, 3 months, and 5 years postdischarge. These analyses demonstrate fondaparinux to be cost-effective for the prophylaxis of VTE in the orthopedic postsurgical setting.

Acute care clinical pharmacy practice: unit- versus service-based models.

This commentary from the 2010 Task Force on Acute Care Practice Model of the American College of Clinical Pharmacy was developed to compare and contrast the "unit-based" and "service-based" orientation of the clinical pharmacist within an acute care pharmacy practice model and to offer an informed opinion concerning which should be preferred. The clinical pharmacy practice model must facilitate patient-centered care and therefore must position the pharmacist to be an active member of the interprofessional team focused on providing high-quality pharmaceutical care to the patient. Although both models may have advantages and disadvantages, the most important distinction pertains to the patient care role of the clinical pharmacist. The unit-based pharmacist is often in a position of reacting to an established order or decision and frequently is focused on task-oriented clinical services. By definition, the service-based clinical pharmacist functions as a member of the interprofessional team. As a team member, the pharmacist proactively contributes to the decision-making process and the development of patient-centered care plans. The service-based orientation of the pharmacist is consistent with both the practice vision embraced by ACCP and its definition of clinical pharmacy. The task force strongly recommends that institutions pursue a service-based pharmacy practice model to optimally deploy their clinical pharmacists. Those who elect to adopt this recommendation will face challenges in overcoming several resource, technologic, regulatory, and accreditation barriers. However, such challenges must be confronted if clinical pharmacists are to contribute fully to achieving optimal patient outcomes.

Risk of venous thromboembolism in hospitalized patients with peripherally inserted central catheters.

BACKGROUND: Peripherally inserted central catheters (PICC) are increasingly used in hospitalized patients. The benefit can be offset by complications such as upper extremity deep vein thrombosis (UEDVT). METHODS: Retrospective study of patients who received a PICC while hospitalized at the Methodist University Hospital (MUH) in Memphis, TN. All adult consecutive patients who had PICCs inserted during the study period and who did not have a UEDVT at the time of PICC insertion were included in the study. A UEDVT was defined as a symptomatic event in the ipsilateral extremity, leading to the performance of duplex ultrasonography, which confirmed the diagnosis of UEDVT. Pulmonary embolism (PE) was defined as a symptomatic event prompting the performance of ventilation-perfusion lung scan or spiral computed tomography (CT). RESULTS: Among 777 patients, 38 patients experienced 1 or more venous thromboembolisms (VTEs), yielding an incidence of 4.89%. A total of 7444 PICC-days were recorded for 777 patients. This yields a rate of 5.10 VTEs/1000 PICC-days. Compared to patients whose PICC was inserted in the SVC, patients whose PICC was in another location had an increased risk (odds ratio = 2.61 [95% CI = 1.28-5.35]) of VTE. PICC related VTE was significantly more common among patients with a past history of VTE (odds ratio = 10.83 [95% CI = 4.89-23.95]). CONCLUSIONS: About 5% of patients undergoing PICC placement in acute care hospitals will develop thromboembolic complications. Thromboembolic complications were especially common among persons with a past history of VTE. Catheter tip location at the time of insertion may be an important modifiable risk factor.

Evaluation of glycemic control following discontinuation of an intensive insulin protocol.

BACKGROUND: Intensive insulin protocols (IIPs) have been demonstrated to reduce morbidity and mortality in critically ill patients. Currently, there are no published studies evaluating glycemic control after discontinuation of an IIP. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare blood glucose (BG) control during an IIP and for 5 days following its discontinuation (follow-up period). METHODS: The study was a retrospective review of intensive care unit patients who received an IIP for >or=24 hours. Data were collected during the last 12 hours of the IIP and subsequent follow-up period. RESULTS: For all 65 included patients, the mean +/- standard deviation for BG on the IIP was 123 +/- 26 mg/dL versus 168 +/- 50 mg/dL following discontinuation of the IIP (P < 0.001). The median (interquartile range) insulin that was administered decreased from 40 (22-65) units on the IIP to 8 (0-18) units after the IIP was stopped (P < 0.001). The mean daily BG during the follow-up period was significantly higher than that during the IIP (P < 0.001). Additionally, an insulin requirement of >20 units during the last 12 hours of the IIP was identified as a risk factor for poor glycemic control during the follow-up period (odds ratio: 4.62; 95% confidence interval: 1.17-18.17). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates a significant increase in BG following discontinuation of an IIP. Higher insulin requirements during the last 12 hours of an IIP were identified as an independent risk factor for poor glycemic control following the IIP. A standardized insulin transition protocol may help better control BG after discontinuation of an IIP.

Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia complicated by warfarin-induced skin necrosis.

PURPOSE: A case of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) complicated by warfarin-induced skin necrosis (WISN) is reported. SUMMARY: A patient with a history of hypertension, heart failure, and myocardial infarction was admitted to the hospital after complaining of a two-day history of shortness of breath, diaphoresis, and chest pain. The patient underwent a cardiac catheterization and received several medications, including heparin. Suspicions of HIT occurred when her platelets began to decrease severely and she developed a left groin hematoma and a pseudoaneurysm. Lepirudin was initiated and a heparin platelet factor 4 (PF4) antibody test was performed. The results were negative and lepirudin was discontinued. She was rechallenged with unfractionated heparin (UFH) after surgery of the pseudoaneurysm, but her platelets began to decrease again. A second PF4 test was performed, the results of which were positive. The UFH treatment was discontinued. Warfarin was also initiated after surgery and the patient's platelets rapidly increased after heparin was discontinued. She was discharged one week later. Three days after discharge, she was readmitted after complaining of severe pain and swelling of the fatty tissue of her right flank that began the day after she was discharged. Some blistering and necrosis were noted on the lesion. Histological sections showed focal thrombosis of vessels in the deep reticular dermis consistent with WISN. Local wound care was given to manage the WISN, lepirudin was initiated, and warfarin was discontinued and reinstated one week later at a low dosage. CONCLUSION: A patient with HIT developed severe skin necrosis after initiation of warfarin therapy.

Use of newer anticoagulants in patients with chronic kidney disease.

PURPOSE: The current indications, dosing, and practical considerations for use of newer anticoagulants in patients with various degrees of renal impairment who do not require dialysis are reviewed. SUMMARY: Kidney function should generally be evaluated in all patients commencing anticoagulant therapy. As in the general population, hospitalized patients with impaired renal function most often have impairment that is mild to moderate in severity. Drug dosing in patients with chronic kidney disease may require that adjustment be made to the usual loading or maintenance dose of a drug. Newer anticoagulants with labeling approved by the Food and Drug Administration for venous thromboembolism (VTE) prophylaxis, treatment, or both include the low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWHs) and the factor Xa inhibitor fondaparinux. Some LMWHs are also indicated for the management of patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). All of the newer anticoagulants currently available for the management of VTE and ACS have approved labeling for use in patients with mild-to-moderate renal impairment. Currently available LMWHs, factor Xa inhibitors, and direct thrombin inhibitors (excluding argatroban) are eliminated primarily by the kidneys, so dosing in patients with severe renal impairment may require cautious dosage reduction or increased monitoring for bleeding and thromboembolic complications or both. Unfractionated heparin is the preferred anticoagulant for use in most of these patients. CONCLUSION: Newer anticoagulants should be used with caution in patients with mild-to-moderate renal impairment. Unfractionated heparin remains the preferred anticoagulant in most patients with severe renal impairment even though its use is associated with increased bleeding in this population. Dosing of newer anticoagulants, except argatroban, requires cautious dosage reduction and increased monitoring for complications.

Blood pressure management in acute hypertensive emergency.

PURPOSE: The frequency with which patients coming to an emergency room with hypertensive emergency received excessive or inadequate blood-pressure reduction was studied. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was conducted for all patients who were treated for hypertensive emergency at a 696-bed university teaching hospital between November 2003 and April 2004. Patients who received a continuous i.v. infusion of an antihypertensive agent for >30 minutes in the emergency department or the intensive care unit were included in the study. The primary outcomes measured were number of patients treated appropriately, number of patients treated excessively (reduction in mean arterial pressure [MAP] beyond 25% at the end of the two-hour acute-phase treatment window), and number of treatment failures within the two-hour window. RESULTS: A total of 427 patients with hypertensive emergency were identified, of whom 47 met the study criteria. Fifteen patients (32%) were appropriately treated, 27 (57%) were excessively treated, and 5 (11%) had treatment failures during the two-hour acute-phase treatment period. Only 6 patients (13%) had been appropriately treated at six hours. Patients who were given nicardipine had a greater risk of an excessive MAP reduction at two hours than all other patients. One or more treatment-related adverse events occurred in 44 patients (94%). CONCLUSION: Excessive reduction of MAP was common among patients who came to an emergency department with hypertensive emergency.

Overuse of antihypertensives in patients with acute ischemic stroke.

BACKGROUND: The Stroke Council of the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association (AHA/ASA) recommends conservative management of hypertension (HTN) during acute ischemic stroke (AIS), although clinicians often manage blood pressure more aggressively. Our hypothesis was that aggressive management of HTN in patients with AIS is associated with hypotensive events and worsened neurologic outcomes. METHODS: The study was a retrospective, observational cohort of patients who were admitted to the hospital with AIS. Classification of neurologic outcomes was based on nurses' neurologic assessments and were categorized as "worsened," "stayed the same," or "improved." The accuracy of these assessments was verified by review of physician's progress notes. Management of arterial HTN was recorded in all patients. RESULTS: Fifty medical records of patients with AIS who met inclusion criteria were reviewed. While only 22% of patients met the AHA/ASA criteria for hypertension treatment, 98% of the cohort were given antihypertensive therapy. Relative hypotension occurred in 64% of treated patients. Absolute hypotension associated with antihypertensive medications was uncommon but did occur in 2 of 15 patients who experienced neurologic worsening (13%), in 1 of 28 (3%) of patients who stayed the same, and in none of those who improved. Blood pressure was reduced excessively in all 11 of the patients who met AHA/ASA guidelines for treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Adherence to AHA/ASA guidelines for HTN management during AIS was poor. Initiation or intensification of antihypertensive drugs was not associated with worsened neurologic outcomes. Furthermore, relative hypotension, absolute hypotension and excessive reductions in blood pressure were not associated with worsened neurologic outcomes.

Migraine treatment throughout the lifecycle.

The treatment of migraine headache is often suboptimal despite significant advances in our understanding of the pathophysiology and treatment of migraine. Children, adolescents, women and the elderly are particularly at risk of receiving inadequate or inappropriate therapy. In this review, the reader is brought up-to-date with changes to the International Headache Society diagnostic criteria for migraine. The pathophysiology of migraine is also reviewed, with a special emphasis on the evolving concept of central sensitization and cutaneous allodynia since this concept has led to a paradigm shift in the way migraines are managed. A review of the evidence supporting the benefits of early treatment before pain becomes moderate-to-severe is provided. Recommendations for acute and prophylactic treatments throughout the lifecycle are made in light of clinical practice guidelines and more recent evidence. Lastly, the current optimal treatment of migraine is provided and the potential role of calcitonin gene-related peptide antagonists in the future is discussed.

Acute inhalant-induced neurotoxicity with delayed recovery.

OBJECTIVE: To report a case of neurotoxicity and subsequent hospitalization due to abuse of an ethyl chloride inhalant. CASE SUMMARY: A 41-year-old African American male presented to the emergency department due to mental status changes and an inability to walk. After the blood alcohol and urine drug screen returned negative, a family member revealed that the patient frequently abused an inhalant containing the volatile solvent ethyl chloride. DISCUSSION: Inhalant abuse is common and is facilitated by the widespread availability of volatile solvents that have legitimate commercial or household uses. Most inhalants are central nervous system depressants and are highly lipophilic. Maximum Impact, which contains ethyl chloride, is sold in stores and is readily available over the Internet. While the product has a legitimate use as a VCR head cleaner, it is often illicitly marketed over the Internet as a means of getting a "rush" or "high" and for enhancing sexual pleasure. Neurologic symptoms have been reported after deliberate inhalational exposure to ethyl chloride, and 2 deaths have been associated with its use. An objective causality assessment using the Naranjo probability scale revealed a probable adverse drug event. CONCLUSIONS: Inhalants should be included in the differential diagnosis of patients presenting with acute mental status changes and neurologic impairment that resolve over less than one week.