Machine learning-based marker for coronary artery disease: derivation and validation in two longitudinal cohorts.

BACKGROUND: Binary diagnosis of coronary artery disease does not preserve the complexity of disease or quantify its severity or its associated risk with death; hence, a quantitative marker of coronary artery disease is warranted. We evaluated a quantitative marker of coronary artery disease derived from probabilities of a machine learning model. METHODS: In this cohort study, we developed and validated a coronary artery disease-predictive machine learning model using 95 935 electronic health records and assessed its probabilities as in-silico scores for coronary artery disease (ISCAD; range 0 [lowest probability] to 1 [highest probability]) in participants in two longitudinal biobank cohorts. We measured the association of ISCAD with clinical outcomes-namely, coronary artery stenosis, obstructive coronary artery disease, multivessel coronary artery disease, all-cause death, and coronary artery disease sequelae. FINDINGS: Among 95 935 participants, 35 749 were from the BioMe Biobank (median age 61 years [IQR 18]; 14 599 [41%] were male and 21 150 [59%] were female; 5130 [14%] were with diagnosed coronary artery disease) and 60 186 were from the UK Biobank (median age 62 [15] years; 25 031 [42%] male and 35 155 [58%] female; 8128 [14%] with diagnosed coronary artery disease). The model predicted coronary artery disease with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0·95 (95% CI 0·94-0·95; sensitivity of 0·94 [0·94-0·95] and specificity of 0·82 [0·81-0·83]) and 0·93 (0·92-0·93; sensitivity of 0·90 [0·89-0·90] and specificity of 0·88 [0·87-0·88]) in the BioMe validation and holdout sets, respectively, and 0·91 (0·91-0·91; sensitivity of 0·84 [0·83-0·84] and specificity of 0·83 [0·82-0·83]) in the UK Biobank external test set. ISCAD captured coronary artery disease risk from known risk factors, pooled cohort equations, and polygenic risk scores. Coronary artery stenosis increased quantitatively with ascending ISCAD quartiles (increase per quartile of 12 percentage points), including risk of obstructive coronary artery disease, multivessel coronary artery disease, and stenosis of major coronary arteries. Hazard ratios (HRs) and prevalence of all-cause death increased stepwise over ISCAD deciles (decile 1: HR 1·0 [95% CI 1·0-1·0], 0·2% prevalence; decile 6: 11 [3·9-31], 3·1% prevalence; and decile 10: 56 [20-158], 11% prevalence). A similar trend was observed for recurrent myocardial infarction. 12 (46%) undiagnosed individuals with high ISCAD (≥0·9) had clinical evidence of coronary artery disease according to the 2014 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force guidelines. INTERPRETATION: Electronic health record-based machine learning was used to generate an in-silico marker for coronary artery disease that can non-invasively quantify atherosclerosis and risk of death on a continuous spectrum, and identify underdiagnosed individuals. FUNDING: National Institutes of Health.

Polygenic Risk Scores for Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association.

Cardiovascular disease is the leading contributor to years lost due to disability or premature death among adults. Current efforts focus on risk prediction and risk factor mitigation' which have been recognized for the past half-century. However, despite advances, risk prediction remains imprecise with persistently high rates of incident cardiovascular disease. Genetic characterization has been proposed as an approach to enable earlier and potentially tailored prevention. Rare mendelian pathogenic variants predisposing to cardiometabolic conditions have long been known to contribute to disease risk in some families. However, twin and familial aggregation studies imply that diverse cardiovascular conditions are heritable in the general population. Significant technological and methodological advances since the Human Genome Project are facilitating population-based comprehensive genetic profiling at decreasing costs. Genome-wide association studies from such endeavors continue to elucidate causal mechanisms for cardiovascular diseases. Systematic cataloging for cardiovascular risk alleles also enabled the development of polygenic risk scores. Genetic profiling is becoming widespread in large-scale research, including in health care-associated biobanks, randomized controlled trials, and direct-to-consumer profiling in tens of millions of people. Thus, individuals and their physicians are increasingly presented with polygenic risk scores for cardiovascular conditions in clinical encounters. In this scientific statement, we review the contemporary science, clinical considerations, and future challenges for polygenic risk scores for cardiovascular diseases. We selected 5 cardiometabolic diseases (coronary artery disease, hypercholesterolemia, type 2 diabetes, atrial fibrillation, and venous thromboembolic disease) and response to drug therapy and offer provisional guidance to health care professionals, researchers, policymakers, and patients.

Genome-wide polygenic risk score for retinopathy of type 2 diabetes.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common consequence in type 2 diabetes (T2D) and a leading cause of blindness in working-age adults. Yet, its genetic predisposition is largely unknown. Here, we examined the polygenic architecture underlying DR by deriving and assessing a genome-wide polygenic risk score (PRS) for DR. We evaluated the PRS in 6079 individuals with T2D of European, Hispanic, African and other ancestries from a large-scale multi-ethnic biobank. Main outcomes were PRS association with DR diagnosis, symptoms and complications, and time to diagnosis, and transferability to non-European ancestries. We observed that PRS was significantly associated with DR. A standard deviation increase in PRS was accompanied by an adjusted odds ratio (OR) of 1.12 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.04-1.20; P = 0.001] for DR diagnosis. When stratified by ancestry, PRS was associated with the highest OR in European ancestry (OR = 1.22, 95% CI 1.02-1.41; P = 0.049), followed by African (OR = 1.15, 95% CI 1.03-1.28; P = 0.028) and Hispanic ancestries (OR = 1.10, 95% CI 1.00-1.10; P = 0.050). Individuals in the top PRS decile had a 1.8-fold elevated risk for DR versus the bottom decile (P = 0.002). Among individuals without DR diagnosis, the top PRS decile had more DR symptoms than the bottom decile (P = 0.008). The PRS was associated with retinal hemorrhage (OR = 1.44, 95% CI 1.03-2.02; P = 0.03) and earlier DR presentation (10% probability of DR by 4 years in the top PRS decile versus 8 years in the bottom decile). These results establish the significant polygenic underpinnings of DR and indicate the need for more diverse ancestries in biobanks to develop multi-ancestral PRS.

Genome-first recall of healthy individuals by polygenic risk score reveals differences in coronary artery calcium.

Genetic risk for coronary artery disease (CAD) is commonly measured with polygenic risk scores (PRS); yet, the relationship of atherosclerotic burden with PRS in healthy individuals not at high clinical risk for CAD (ie, without a high pooled cohort equations [PCE] score) is unknown. Here, we implemented a novel recall-by-PRS strategy to measure coronary artery calcium (CAC) scores prospectively in 53 healthy individuals with extreme high PRS (median [IQR] PRS = 94% [83-98]) and low PRS (median [IQR] PRS = 3.6% [1.2-10]). The high PRS group was associated with a 2.8-fold greater CAC than the low PRS group, adjusted for age, sex, BMI, smoking, and statin use, and had a 6.7-fold greater proportion of individuals with CAC exceeding 300 HU. These findings reveal that extreme PRS tracks with CAD risk even in those without high clinical risk and demonstrate proof of principle for recall-by-PRS approaches that should be assessed prospectively in larger trials.

Genetic architecture of cardiometabolic risks in people living with HIV.

BACKGROUND: Advances in antiretroviral therapies have greatly improved the survival of people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection (PLWH); yet, PLWH have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease than those without HIV. While numerous genetic loci have been linked to cardiometabolic risk in the general population, genetic predictors of the excessive risk in PLWH are largely unknown. METHODS: We screened for common and HIV-specific genetic variants associated with variation in lipid levels in 6284 PLWH (3095 European Americans [EA] and 3189 African Americans [AA]), from the Centers for AIDS Research Network of Integrated Clinical Systems cohort. Genetic hits found exclusively in the PLWH cohort were tested for association with other traits. We then assessed the predictive value of a series of polygenic risk scores (PRS) recapitulating the genetic burden for lipid levels, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and myocardial infarction (MI) in EA and AA PLWH. RESULTS: We confirmed the impact of previously reported lipid-related susceptibility loci in PLWH. Furthermore, we identified PLWH-specific variants in genes involved in immune cell regulation and previously linked to HIV control, body composition, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Moreover, PLWH at the top of European-based PRS for T2D distribution demonstrated a > 2-fold increased risk of T2D compared to the remaining 95% in EA PLWH but to a much lesser degree in AA. Importantly, while PRS for MI was not predictive of MI risk in AA PLWH, multiethnic PRS significantly improved risk stratification for T2D and MI. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that genetic loci involved in the regulation of the immune system and predisposition to risky behaviors contribute to dyslipidemia in the presence of HIV infection. Moreover, we demonstrate the utility of the European-based and multiethnic PRS for stratification of PLWH at a high risk of cardiometabolic diseases who may benefit from preventive therapies.

Sequence variants in SLC16A11 are a common risk factor for type 2 diabetes in Mexico.

Performing genetic studies in multiple human populations can identify disease risk alleles that are common in one population but rare in others, with the potential to illuminate pathophysiology, health disparities, and the population genetic origins of disease alleles. Here we analysed 9.2 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in each of 8,214 Mexicans and other Latin Americans: 3,848 with type 2 diabetes and 4,366 non-diabetic controls. In addition to replicating previous findings, we identified a novel locus associated with type 2 diabetes at genome-wide significance spanning the solute carriers SLC16A11 and SLC16A13 (P = 3.9 × 10(-13); odds ratio (OR) = 1.29). The association was stronger in younger, leaner people with type 2 diabetes, and replicated in independent samples (P = 1.1 × 10(-4); OR = 1.20). The risk haplotype carries four amino acid substitutions, all in SLC16A11; it is present at ~50% frequency in Native American samples and ~10% in east Asian, but is rare in European and African samples. Analysis of an archaic genome sequence indicated that the risk haplotype introgressed into modern humans via admixture with Neanderthals. The SLC16A11 messenger RNA is expressed in liver, and V5-tagged SLC16A11 protein localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum. Expression of SLC16A11 in heterologous cells alters lipid metabolism, most notably causing an increase in intracellular triacylglycerol levels. Despite type 2 diabetes having been well studied by genome-wide association studies in other populations, analysis in Mexican and Latin American individuals identified SLC16A11 as a novel candidate gene for type 2 diabetes with a possible role in triacylglycerol metabolism.

Multiethnic polygenic risk scores improve risk prediction in diverse populations.

Methods for genetic risk prediction have been widely investigated in recent years. However, most available training data involves European samples, and it is currently unclear how to accurately predict disease risk in other populations. Previous studies have used either training data from European samples in large sample size or training data from the target population in small sample size, but not both. Here, we introduce a multiethnic polygenic risk score that combines training data from European samples and training data from the target population. We applied this approach to predict type 2 diabetes (T2D) in a Latino cohort using both publicly available European summary statistics in large sample size (Neff  = 40k) and Latino training data in small sample size (Neff  = 8k). Here, we attained a >70% relative improvement in prediction accuracy (from R2  = 0.027 to 0.047) compared to methods that use only one source of training data, consistent with large relative improvements in simulations. We observed a systematically lower load of T2D risk alleles in Latino individuals with more European ancestry, which could be explained by polygenic selection in ancestral European and/or Native American populations. We predict T2D in a South Asian UK Biobank cohort using European (Neff  = 40k) and South Asian (Neff  = 16k) training data and attained a >70% relative improvement in prediction accuracy, and application to predict height in an African UK Biobank cohort using European (N = 113k) and African (N = 2k) training data attained a 30% relative improvement. Our work reduces the gap in polygenic risk prediction accuracy between European and non-European target populations.

Founder effect and ancestral origin of the spinocerebellar ataxia type 7 (SCA7) mutation in Mexican families.

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 7 (SCA7) is an autosomal dominant disease characterized by progressive cerebellar ataxia and macular degeneration causing progressive blindness. It accounts for 1 to 11.6 % of spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) cases worldwide and for 7.4 % of SCA7 cases in Mexico. We identified a cluster of SCA7 families who resided in a circumscribed area of Veracruz and investigated whether the high incidence of the disease in this region was due to a founder effect. A total of 181 individuals from 20 families were studied. Four microsatellite markers and one SNP flanking the ATNX7 gene were genotyped and the ancestral origin and local ancestry analysis of the SCA7 mutation were evaluated. Ninety individuals from 19 families had the SCA7 mutation; all were found to share a common haplotype, suggesting that the mutation in these families originated from a common ancestor. Ancestral origin and local ancestry analysis of SCA7 showed that the chromosomal segment containing the mutation was of European origin. We here present evidence strongly suggesting that the high frequency of SCA7 in Veracruz is due to a founder effect and that the mutation is most likely of European origin with greatest resemblance to the Finnish population.

Muesli Intake May Protect Against Coronary Artery Disease: Mendelian Randomization on 13 Dietary Traits.

BACKGROUND: Diet is a key modifiable risk factor of coronary artery disease (CAD). However, the causal effects of specific dietary traits on CAD risk remain unclear. With the expansion of dietary data in population biobanks, Mendelian randomization (MR) could help enable the efficient estimation of causality in diet-disease associations. OBJECTIVES: The primary goal was to test causality for 13 common dietary traits on CAD risk using a systematic 2-sample MR framework. A secondary goal was to identify plasma metabolites mediating diet-CAD associations suspected to be causal. METHODS: Cross-sectional genetic and dietary data on up to 420,531 UK Biobank and 184,305 CARDIoGRAMplusC4D individuals of European ancestry were used in 2-sample MR. The primary analysis used fixed effect inverse-variance weighted regression, while sensitivity analyses used weighted median estimation, MR-Egger regression, and MR-Pleiotropy Residual Sum and Outlier. RESULTS: Genetic variants serving as proxies for muesli intake were negatively associated with CAD risk (OR: 0.74; 95% CI: 0.65-0.84; P = 5.385 × 10-4). Sensitivity analyses using weighted median estimation supported this with a significant association in the same direction. Additionally, we identified higher plasma acetate levels as a potential mediator (OR: 0.03; 95% CI: 0.01-0.12; P = 1.15 × 10-4). CONCLUSIONS: Muesli, a mixture of oats, seeds, nuts, dried fruit, and milk, may causally reduce CAD risk. Circulating levels of acetate, a gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acid, could be mediating its cardioprotective effects. These findings highlight the role of gut flora in cardiovascular health and help prioritize randomized trials on dietary interventions for CAD.

Exome sequence analysis identifies rare coding variants associated with a machine learning-based marker for coronary artery disease.

Coronary artery disease (CAD) exists on a spectrum of disease represented by a combination of risk factors and pathogenic processes. An in silico score for CAD built using machine learning and clinical data in electronic health records captures disease progression, severity and underdiagnosis on this spectrum and could enhance genetic discovery efforts for CAD. Here we tested associations of rare and ultrarare coding variants with the in silico score for CAD in the UK Biobank, All of Us Research Program and BioMe Biobank. We identified associations in 17 genes; of these, 14 show at least moderate levels of prior genetic, biological and/or clinical support for CAD. We also observed an excess of ultrarare coding variants in 321 aggregated CAD genes, suggesting more ultrarare variant associations await discovery. These results expand our understanding of the genetic etiology of CAD and illustrate how digital markers can enhance genetic association investigations for complex diseases.

Development of a human genetics-guided priority score for 19,365 genes and 399 drug indications.

Studies have shown that drug targets with human genetic support are more likely to succeed in clinical trials. Hence, a tool integrating genetic evidence to prioritize drug target genes is beneficial for drug discovery. We built a genetic priority score (GPS) by integrating eight genetic features with drug indications from the Open Targets and SIDER databases. The top 0.83%, 0.28% and 0.19% of the GPS conferred a 5.3-, 9.9- and 11.0-fold increased effect of having an indication, respectively. In addition, we observed that targets in the top 0.28% of the score were 1.7-, 3.7- and 8.8-fold more likely to advance from phase I to phases II, III and IV, respectively. Complementary to the GPS, we incorporated the direction of genetic effect and drug mechanism into a directional version of the score called the GPS with direction of effect. We applied our method to 19,365 protein-coding genes and 399 drug indications and made all results available through a web portal.

Phenome-wide Mendelian randomization study of plasma triglyceride levels and 2600 disease traits.

Background: Causality between plasma triglyceride (TG) levels and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk remains controversial despite more than four decades of study and two recent landmark trials, STRENGTH, and REDUCE-IT. Further unclear is the association between TG levels and non-atherosclerotic diseases across organ systems. Methods: Here, we conducted a phenome-wide, two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis using inverse-variance weighted (IVW) regression to systematically infer the causal effects of plasma TG levels on 2600 disease traits in the European ancestry population of UK Biobank. For replication, we externally tested 221 nominally significant associations (p<0.05) in an independent cohort from FinnGen. To account for potential horizontal pleiotropy and the influence of invalid instrumental variables, we performed sensitivity analyses using MR-Egger regression, weighted median estimator, and MR-PRESSO. Finally, we used multivariable MR (MVMR) controlling for correlated lipid fractions to distinguish the independent effect of plasma TG levels. Results: Our results identified seven disease traits reaching Bonferroni-corrected significance in both the discovery (p<1.92 × 10-5) and replication analyses (p<2.26 × 10-4), suggesting a causal relationship between plasma TG levels and ASCVDs, including coronary artery disease (OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.24-1.43, p=2.47 × 10-13). We also identified 12 disease traits that were Bonferroni-significant in the discovery or replication analysis and at least nominally significant in the other analysis (p<0.05), identifying plasma TG levels as a novel potential risk factor for nine non-ASCVD diseases, including uterine leiomyoma (OR 1.19, 95% CI 1.10-1.29, p=1.17 × 10-5). Conclusions: Taking a phenome-wide, two-sample MR approach, we identified causal associations between plasma TG levels and 19 disease traits across organ systems. Our findings suggest unrealized drug repurposing opportunities or adverse effects related to approved and emerging TG-lowering agents, as well as mechanistic insights for future studies. Funding: RD is supported by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R35-GM124836) and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the NIH (R01-HL139865 and R01-HL155915).

Coronary Risk Estimation Based on Clinical Data in Electronic Health Records.

BACKGROUND: Clinical features from electronic health records (EHRs) can be used to build a complementary tool to predict coronary artery disease (CAD) susceptibility. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine whether an EHR score can improve CAD prediction and reclassification 1 year before diagnosis, beyond conventional clinical guidelines as determined by the pooled cohort equations (PCE) and a polygenic risk score for CAD. METHODS: We applied a machine learning framework using clinical features from the EHR in a multiethnic, clinical care cohort (BioMe) comprising 555 CAD cases and 6,349 control subjects and in a population-based cohort (UK Biobank) comprising 3,130 CAD cases and 378,344 control subjects for external validation. RESULTS: Compared with the PCE, the EHR score improved CAD prediction by 12% in the BioMe Biobank and by 9% in the UK Biobank. The EHR score reclassified 25.8% and 15.2% individuals in each cohort respectively, compared with the PCE score. We observed larger improvements in the EHR score over the PCE in a subgroup of individuals with low CAD risk, with 20% increased discrimination and 34.4% increased reclassification. In all models, the polygenic risk score for CAD did not improve CAD prediction, compared with the PCE or EHR score. CONCLUSIONS: The EHR score resulted in increased prediction and reclassification for CAD, demonstrating its potential use for population health monitoring of short-term CAD risk in large health systems.

Incorporating functional priors improves polygenic prediction accuracy in UK Biobank and 23andMe data sets.

Polygenic risk prediction is a widely investigated topic because of its promising clinical applications. Genetic variants in functional regions of the genome are enriched for complex trait heritability. Here, we introduce a method for polygenic prediction, LDpred-funct, that leverages trait-specific functional priors to increase prediction accuracy. We fit priors using the recently developed baseline-LD model, including coding, conserved, regulatory, and LD-related annotations. We analytically estimate posterior mean causal effect sizes and then use cross-validation to regularize these estimates, improving prediction accuracy for sparse architectures. We applied LDpred-funct to predict 21 highly heritable traits in the UK Biobank (avg N = 373 K as training data). LDpred-funct attained a +4.6% relative improvement in average prediction accuracy (avg prediction R2 = 0.144; highest R2 = 0.413 for height) compared to SBayesR (the best method that does not incorporate functional information). For height, meta-analyzing training data from UK Biobank and 23andMe cohorts (N = 1107 K) increased prediction R2 to 0.431. Our results show that incorporating functional priors improves polygenic prediction accuracy, consistent with the functional architecture of complex traits.

Neuropsychiatric Genetics of Psychosis in the Mexican Population: A Genome-Wide Association Study Protocol for Schizophrenia, Schizoaffective, and Bipolar Disorder Patients and Controls.

No large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWASs) of psychosis have been conducted in Mexico or Latin America to date. Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder in particular have been found to be highly heritable and genetically influenced. However, understanding of the biological basis of psychosis in Latin American populations is limited as previous genomic studies have almost exclusively relied on participants of Northern European ancestry. With the goal of expanding knowledge on the genomic basis of psychotic disorders within the Mexican population, the National Institute of Psychiatry Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz (INPRFM), the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and the Broad Institute's Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research launched the Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research of Psychosis in Mexican Populations (NeuroMex) project to collect and analyze case-control psychosis samples from 5 states across Mexico. This article describes the planned sample collection and GWAS protocol for the NeuroMex study. The 4-year study will span from April 2018 to 2022 and aims to recruit 9,208 participants: 4,604 cases and 4,604 controls. Study sites across Mexico were selected to ensure collected samples capture the genomic diversity within the Mexican population. Blood samples and phenotypic data will be collected during the participant interview process and will contribute to the development of a local biobank in Mexico. DNA extraction will be done locally and genetic analysis will take place at the Broad Institute in Cambridge, MA. We will collect extensive phenotypic information using several clinical scales. All study materials including phenotypic instruments utilized are openly available in Spanish and English. The described study represents a long-term collaboration of a number of institutions from across Mexico and the Boston area, including clinical psychiatrists, clinical researchers, computational biologists, and managers at the 3 collaborating institutions. The development of relevant data management, quality assurance, and analysis plans are the primary considerations in this protocol article. Extensive management and analysis processes were developed for both the phenotypic and genetic data collected. Capacity building, partnerships, and training between and among the collaborating institutions are intrinsic components to this study and its long-term success.

Improving the informativeness of Mendelian disease-derived pathogenicity scores for common disease.

Despite considerable progress on pathogenicity scores prioritizing variants for Mendelian disease, little is known about the utility of these scores for common disease. Here, we assess the informativeness of Mendelian disease-derived pathogenicity scores for common disease and improve upon existing scores. We first apply stratified linkage disequilibrium (LD) score regression to evaluate published pathogenicity scores across 41 common diseases and complex traits (average N = 320K). Several of the resulting annotations are informative for common disease, even after conditioning on a broad set of functional annotations. We then improve upon published pathogenicity scores by developing AnnotBoost, a machine learning framework to impute and denoise pathogenicity scores using a broad set of functional annotations. AnnotBoost substantially increases the informativeness for common disease of both previously uninformative and previously informative pathogenicity scores, implying that Mendelian and common disease variants share similar properties. The boosted scores also produce improvements in heritability model fit and in classifying disease-associated, fine-mapped SNPs. Our boosted scores may improve fine-mapping and candidate gene discovery for common disease.

Functionally informed fine-mapping and polygenic localization of complex trait heritability.

Fine-mapping aims to identify causal variants impacting complex traits. We propose PolyFun, a computationally scalable framework to improve fine-mapping accuracy by leveraging functional annotations across the entire genome-not just genome-wide-significant loci-to specify prior probabilities for fine-mapping methods such as SuSiE or FINEMAP. In simulations, PolyFun + SuSiE and PolyFun + FINEMAP were well calibrated and identified >20% more variants with a posterior causal probability >0.95 than identified in their nonfunctionally informed counterparts. In analyses of 49 UK Biobank traits (average n = 318,000), PolyFun + SuSiE identified 3,025 fine-mapped variant-trait pairs with posterior causal probability >0.95, a >32% improvement versus SuSiE. We used posterior mean per-SNP heritabilities from PolyFun + SuSiE to perform polygenic localization, constructing minimal sets of common SNPs causally explaining 50% of common SNP heritability; these sets ranged in size from 28 (hair color) to 3,400 (height) to 2 million (number of children). In conclusion, PolyFun prioritizes variants for functional follow-up and provides insights into complex trait architectures.