Fiber-Optic Photoacoustic CO Sensor for Gas Insulation Equipment Monitoring Based on Cantilever Differential Lock-In Amplification and Optical Excitation Enhancement.

A fiber-optic photoacoustic CO sensor for gas insulation equipment is proposed, which relies on F-P interferometric cantilever-based differential lock-in amplification and optical multipass excitation enhancement. The sensor has excellent characteristics of high sensitivity, antielectromagnetic interference, fast response, and long-distance detection. The photoacoustic pressure waves in the two resonators of the differential photoacoustic cell (DPAC) are simultaneously detected by two fiber-optic interferometric cantilevers and processed differentially; thereby, the gas flow noise is effectively suppressed. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the superposition of photoacoustic excitation and multipass absorption, the diameter of the resonator is determined to be 6 mm. The optical power emitted by the 1566.6 nm distributed feedback laser is increased to 500 mW by an erbium-doped fiber amplifier. The near-infrared light is reflected 30 times in the multipass cell, which improves the order of magnitude of optical effective excitation. Due to the low sound velocity of SF6 gas, the resonant frequency of the DPAC with a resonator length of 80 mm is 760 Hz. The response time to CO/SF6 gas is 93 s with a flow rate of 500 sccm. The detection limit of the CO sensor is 53 ppb, which realizes the accurate and timely perception of the SF6 decomposition derivative CO and provides technical support for trouble-free operation of gas insulation equipment.

Pressure-Compensated Fiber-Optic Photoacoustic Sensors for Trace SO2 Analysis in Gas Insulation Equipment.

A high-sensitivity fiber-optic photoacoustic sensor with pressure compensation is proposed to analyze the decomposition component SO2 in high-pressure gas insulation equipment. The multiple influence mechanism of pressure on photoacoustic excitation and cantilever detection has been theoretically analyzed and verified. In the high-pressure environment, the excited photoacoustic signal is enhanced, which compensates for the loss of sensitivity of the cantilever. A fiber-optic F-P cantilever is utilized to simultaneously measure static pressure and dynamic photoacoustic wave, and a spectral demodulation method based on white light interference is applied to calculate the optical path difference of the F-P interferometer (FPI). The real-time pressure is judged through the linear relationship between the average optical path difference of FPI and the pressure, which gives the proposed fiber-optic photoacoustic sensor the inherent advantages of being uncharged and resistant to electromagnetic interference. The average optical path difference of FPI is positively related to pressure, with a responsivity of 0.6 µm/atm, which is based on changes in the refractive index of gas. In the range of 1-4 atm, the SO2 sensor has a higher detection sensitivity at high-pressure, which benefits from the pressure compensation effect. With the pressure environment of gas insulation equipment at 4 atm as the application background, the SO2 gas is tested. The detection limit is 20 ppb with an averaging time of 400 s.

Ultrahigh Sensitive Trace Gas Sensing System with Dual Fiber-Optic Cantilever Multiplexing-Based Differential Photoacoustic Detection.

An ultrahigh sensitive trace gas sensing system was presented with dual cantilever-based differential photoacoustic detection. By combining the double enhancement of multipass absorption and optical differential detection, the gas detection sensitivity was significantly improved. The dual-channel synchronous photoacoustic detection was realized by fiber-optic Fabry-Perot interference spectrum multiplexing. The photoacoustic signals detected by two fiber-optic cantilever microphones installed in a differential photoacoustic cell (DPAC) were out of phase, while the detected gas flow noises were in phase. The optical differential detection method achieved both highly sensitive optical interference measurement and differential noise suppression. In the multipass configuration, the interaction path between excitation light and target gas achieved 4.1 m, which improved the photoacoustic signal by an order of magnitude compared with a single reflection. The maximum gas flow allowed by the system based on the DPAC was 250 sccm, which realized the dynamic monitoring of H2S in the SF6 background. The detection limit for H2S in SF6 background was 5.1 ppb, which corresponds to the normalized noise equivalent absorption coefficient of 9 × 10-10 cm-1 W Hz-1/2.

Multi-pass Differential Photoacoustic Sensor for Real-Time Measurement of SF6 Decomposition Component H2S at the ppb Level.

We designed and implemented a photoacoustic (PA) sensor for H2S detection in SF6 background gas based on a multi-pass differential photoacoustic cell (MDPC) and a near-infrared distributed feedback (DFB) laser. In the MDPC apparatus, two resonators with identical geometric parameters were vertically and symmetrically embedded. The differential processing algorithm of two phase-reversed signals realized the effective enhancement of the PA signal and suppressed the flow noise in the dynamic sampling process. In addition, the λ/4 buffer chamber in the MDPC was utilized as a muffler to further reduce the flow noise and realize the dynamic detection of H2S. The collimated excitation light was reflected 30 times in a multi-pass structure constituted of two gold-plated concave mirrors, and an absorption path length of 4.92 m was achieved. Due to the high gas density of SF6, the relationship between the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the gas flow was different between SF6 and N2 background gases. The maximum flow rate of the characteristic gas components detected in the SF6 background is 150 standard cubic centimeters per minute (SCCM), which is lower than 350 SCCM in N2. The linearity property was analyzed, and the results show that the sensitivity of the sensor to H2S in the SF6 background was 27.3 µV/ppm. With the structure, parameters, temperature, gas flow, and natural frequency of the MDPC been optimized, a minimum detection limit (MDL) of 11 ppb was reached with an averaging time of 1000 s, which furnished an effective preventive implement for the safe operation of gas insulation equipment.

High-Sensitivity Silicon Cantilever-Enhanced Photoacoustic Spectroscopy Analyzer with Low Gas Consumption.

A silicon cantilever-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS)-based trace gas analyzer with low gas consumption is presented. A silicon cantilever-based fiber-optic Fabry-Perot (F-P) interferometric acoustic sensor with a compact structure and high sensitivity is designed for photoacoustic signal detection. The non-resonant photoacoustic cell (PAC) is a cylindrical copper tube with a volume of 0.56 mL. A near-infrared laser with a center wavelength of 1532.83 nm amplified using an erbium-doped fiber application amplifier is used as the excitation light. The wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) technique is employed in the present work for second-harmonic photoacoustic signal detection. The experimental results show that the minimum detection limit of C2H2 is 199.8 parts per trillion (ppt) with an average time of 60 s. The normalized noise equivalent absorption coefficient is calculated as 1.72 × 10-9 cm-1 W/Hz1/2. Furthermore, the proposed silicon cantilever-enhanced non-resonant PAS-based gas analyzer can not only analyze the gas concentration in a closed small-capacity PAC with low gas consumption but also detect target gas leakage in real time at a long distance.

All-optical high-sensitivity resonant photoacoustic sensor for remote CH4 gas detection.

This paper presents an all-optical high-sensitivity resonant photoacoustic (PA) sensor to realize remote, long-distance and space-limited trace gas detection. The sensor is an integration of a T-type resonant PA cell and a particular cantilever-based fiber-optic acoustic sensor. The finite element simulations about the cantilever vibration mode and the PA field distributions are carried out based on COMSOL. The all-optical high-sensitivity resonant PA sensor, together with a high-speed spectrometer and a DFB laser source, makes up of a photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) system which is employed for CH4 detection. The measured sensitivity is 0.6 pm/ppm in the case of 1000 s average time, and the minimum detection limit (MDL) reaches 15.9 parts per billion (ppb). The detective light source and the excitation light source are all transmitted by optical fibers, therefore remote and long-distance measurement of trace gas can be realized. Furthermore, the excitation light source and the acoustic sensor are designed at the same side of the PA cell, the sensor may be used for space-limited trace gas detection.

Application of Excimer Lamp in Quantitative Detection of SF6 Decomposition Component SO2.

Accurate quantitative detection for trace gas has long been the center of failure diagnosis for gas-insulated equipment. An absorption spectroscopy-based detection system was developed for trace SF6 decomposition SO2 detection in this paper. In order to reduce interference from other decomposition, ultraviolet spectrum of SO2 was selected for detection. Firstly, an excimer lamp was developed in this paper as the excitation of the absorption spectroscopy compared with regular light sources with electrodes, such as electrodeless lamps that are more suitable for long-term monitoring. Then, based on the developed excimer lamp, a detection system for trace SO2 was established. Next, a proper absorption peak was selected by calculating spectral derivative for further analysis. Experimental results indicated that good linearity existed between the absorbance and concentration of SO2 at the chosen absorption peak. Moreover, the detection limit of the proposed detection system could reach the level of 10-7. The results of this paper could serve as a guide for the application of excimer lamp in online monitoring for SF6-insulated equipment.

High-sensitivity photoacoustic gas detector by employing multi-pass cell and fiber-optic microphone.

A high-sensitivity photoacoustic (PA) spectroscopy (PAS) system is proposed for dual enhancement from both PA signal excitation and detection by employing a miniaturized Herriott cell and a fiber-optic microphone (FOM). The length of the optical absorption path of the PA cell is optimized to ∼374 mm with 17 reflections. The volume of the PA cell is only 622 µL. The FOM is a low-finesse fiber-optic Fabry-Pérot (FP) interferometer. The two reflectors of the FP cavity are formed by a fiber endface and a circular titanium diaphragm with a radius of 4.5 mm and a thickness of 3 µm. A fast demodulated white-light interferometer (WLI) is utilized to measure the absolute FP cavity length. The acoustic responsivity of the FOM reaches 126.6 nm/Pa. Several representative PA signals of trace acetylene (C2H2) are detected to evaluate the performance of the trace gas detector in the near-infrared region. Experimental results show that the minimum detectable pressure (MDP) of the FOM is 3.8 µPa/Hz1/2 at 110 Hz. The noise equivalent minimum detection concentration is measured to be 8.4 ppb with an integration time of 100 s. The normalized noise equivalent absorption (NNEA) coefficient is calculated as 1.4×10-9 cm-1·W·Hz-1/2.

An auto-correction laser photoacoustic spectrometer based on 2f/1f wavelength modulation spectroscopy.

An auto-correction laser photoacoustic (PA) spectrometer based on 2f/1f wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) has been proposed and demonstrated for trace gas detection to eliminate concentration measurement errors due to light power variations. A 1.53 µm distributed feedback (DFB) laser is used as a light source to excite the 2f PA signal that is generated by gas absorption. Meanwhile, a multilayer graphene sheet is employed as a highly efficient photothermal conversion unit for adding a 1f PA background signal, whose amplitude at the absorption center of the traditional PAS system is almost zero. The experimental results show that the gas concentration measured from the 2f/1f WMS signal is almost independent of the laser power. A detection limit of 416 ppb has been achieved for the 1 s measurement interval and could be further improved to 65 ppb with 100 s averaging, according to the Allan deviation analysis.

Highly Sensitive Photoacoustic Microcavity Gas Sensor for Leak Detection.

A highly sensitive photoacoustic (PA) microcavity gas sensor for leak detection is proposed. The miniature and low-cost gas sensor mainly consisted of a micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) microphone and a stainless-steel capillary with two small holes opened on the side wall. Different from traditional PA sensors, the designed low-power sensor had no gas valves and pumps. Gas could diffuse into the stainless-steel PA microcavity from two holes. The volume of the cavity in the sensor was only 7.9 µL. We use a 1650.96 nm distributed feedback (DFB) laser and the second-harmonic wavelength modulation spectroscopy (2f-WMS) method to measure PA signals. The measurement result of diffused methane (CH4) gas shows a response time of 5.8 s and a recovery time of 5.2 s. The detection limit was achieved at 1.7 ppm with a 1-s lock-in integral time. In addition, the calculated normalized noise equivalent absorption (NNEA) coefficient was 1.2 × 10-8 W·cm-1·Hz-1/2. The designed PA microcavity sensor can be used for the early warning of gas leakage.

Experimental Study of Compatibility between the Eco-friendly Insulation Mixed Gas CF3SO2F/N2 and EPDM and CR Materials.

As a greenhouse gas with strong global warming potential, the use of SF6 needs to be reduced as much as possible. Researching environmentally friendly insulation (EFI) gases to replace SF6 in power electrical equipment is an effective way to reduce its usage. CF3SO2F/N2, as a newly proposed EFI gas, has certain potential to replace SF6. Compatibility of CF3SO2F/N2 gas with rubber sealing materials commonly used in electrical equipment is still unknown. In this article, the compatibility of CF3SO2F/N2 with the ethylene-propylene-diene monomer (EPDM) and chloroprene rubber (CR) was investigated experimentally. It was found that CF3SO2F/N2 would slightly decompose under the influence of EPDM and CR rubber under certain conditions. The surface morphology of EPDM changed slightly under the influence of CF3SO2F/N2, and it was similar to the influence of SF6. While the surface morphology of CR deteriorated significantly with obvious defects. The mechanical properties of EPDM were not significantly affected by CF3SO2F, which is similar to the influence of SF6. But CR was affected greatly by CF3SO2F gas. Permanent deformation compression and surface morphology are two effective indicators for characterizing the compatibility between gas and rubber sealing materials. This research provides a reference for the application of CF3SO2F/N2 as a new EFI gas in power equipment.

A nanochannel array based device for determination of the isoelectric point of confined proteins.

A nanochannel array based nanodevice can mimic the biological environments and thus unveil the natural properties, conformation and recognition information of biomolecules such as proteins and DNA in confined spaces. Here we report that porous anodic alumina (PAA) of a highly parallel nanochannel array covalently modified with proteins significantly modulates the transport of a negatively charged probe of ferricyanide due to the electrostatic interactions between the probes and modified nanochannel inner surface. Results show that such electrostatic interaction exists in a wide range of ionic strength from 1 mM to 100 mM in 20 nm nanochannels modified with proteins (hemoglobin, bovine serum albumin, and goat anti-rabbit IgG secondary antibody). In addition, the maximal steady-state flux of the charged probe through the modified nanochannel array is directly related to the ionic strength which determines the electric double layer thickness and solution pH which modulates the nanochannel surface charge. Thus, the modulated mass transport of the probe by solution pH can be used to study the charge properties of the immobilized proteins in nanochannel confined conditions, leading us to obtain the isoelectric point (pI) of the proteins confined in nanochannels. The determined pI values of two known proteins of hemoglobin and bovine serum albumin are close to the ones of the same proteins covalently modified on a 3-mercaptopropionic acid self-assembled monolayer/gold electrode. In addition, the pI of an unknown protein of goat anti-rabbit IgG secondary antibody confined in nanochannels was determined to be 6.3. Finally, the confinement effect of nanochannels on the charge properties of immobilized proteins has been discussed.

The room temperature electrochemical synthesis of N-doped graphene and its electrocatalytic activity for oxygen reduction.

We report a facile and green electrochemical method using graphene oxide as the precursor to synthesize nitrogen doped graphene at room temperature in ammonia containing aqueous solution. The nitrogen doping content reaches 3.3 at%, and the resultant NG shows excellent activity toward the oxygen reduction reaction.