Widespread horse-based mobility arose around 2,200 BCE in Eurasia.

Horses revolutionized human history with fast mobility1. However, the timeline between their domestication and widespread integration as a means of transportation remains contentious2-4. Here we assemble a large collection of 475 ancient horse genomes to assess the period when these animals were first reshaped by human agency in Eurasia. We find that reproductive control of the modern domestic lineage emerged ~2,200 BCE (Before Common Era), through close kin mating and shortened generation times. Reproductive control emerged following a severe domestication bottleneck starting no earlier than ~2,700 BCE, and coincided with a sudden expansion across Eurasia that ultimately resulted in the replacement of nearly every local horse lineage. This expansion marked the rise of widespread horse-based mobility in human history, which refutes the commonly-held narrative of large horse herds accompanying the massive migration of steppe peoples across Europe ~3,000 BCE and earlier3,5. Finally, we detect significantly shortened generation times at Botai ~3,500 BCE, a settlement from Central Asia associated with corrals and a subsistence economy centered on horses6,7. This supports local horse husbandry before the rise of modern domestic bloodlines.

Population dynamics of Baltic herring since the Viking Age revealed by ancient DNA and genomics.

The world's oceans are currently facing major stressors in the form of overexploitation and anthropogenic climate change. The Baltic Sea was home to the first "industrial" fishery ∼800 y ago targeting the Baltic herring, a species that is still economically and culturally important today. Yet, the early origins of marine industries and the long-term ecological consequences of historical and contemporary fisheries remain debated. Here, we study long-term population dynamics of Baltic herring to evaluate the past impacts of humans on the marine environment. We combine modern whole-genome data with ancient DNA (aDNA) to identify the earliest-known long-distance herring trade in the region, illustrating that extensive fish trade began during the Viking Age. We further resolve population structure within the Baltic and observe demographic independence for four local herring stocks over at least 200 generations. It has been suggested that overfishing at Øresund in the 16th century resulted in a demographic shift from autumn-spawning to spring-spawning herring dominance in the Baltic. We show that while the Øresund fishery had a negative impact on the western Baltic herring stock, the demographic shift to spring-spawning dominance did not occur until the 20th century. Instead, demographic reconstructions reveal population trajectories consistent with expected impacts of environmental change and historical reports on shifting fishing targets over time. This study illustrates the joint impact of climate change and human exploitation on marine species as well as the role historical ecology can play in conservation and management policies.

Adapt or die-Response of large herbivores to environmental changes in Europe during the Holocene.

Climate warming and human landscape transformation during the Holocene resulted in environmental changes for wild animals. The last remnants of the European Pleistocene megafauna that survived into the Holocene were particularly vulnerable to changes in habitat. To track the response of habitat use and foraging of large herbivores to natural and anthropogenic changes in environmental conditions during the Holocene, we investigated carbon (δ13 C) and nitrogen (δ15 N) stable isotope composition in bone collagen of moose (Alces alces), European bison (Bison bonasus) and aurochs (Bos primigenius) in Central and Eastern Europe. We found strong variations in isotope compositions in the studied species throughout the Holocene and diverse responses to changing environmental conditions. All three species showed significant changes in their δ13 C values reflecting a shift of foraging habitats from more open in the Early and pre-Neolithic Holocene to more forest during the Neolithic and Late Holocene. This shift was strongest in European bison, suggesting higher plasticity, more limited in moose, and the least in aurochs. Significant increases of δ15 N values in European bison and moose are evidence of a diet change towards more grazing, but may also reflect increased nitrogen in soils following deglaciation and global temperature increases. Among the factors explaining the observed isotope variations were time (age of samples), longitude and elevation in European bison, and time, longitude and forest cover in aurochs. None of the analysed factors explained isotope variations in moose. Our results demonstrate the strong influence of natural (forest expansion) and anthropogenic (deforestation and human pressure) changes on the foraging ecology of large herbivores, with forests playing a major role as a refugial habitat since the Neolithic, particularly for European bison and aurochs. We propose that high flexibility in foraging strategy was the key for survival of large herbivores in the changing environmental conditions of the Holocene.

Human-mediated dispersal of cats in the Neolithic Central Europe.

Archeological and genetic evidence suggest that all domestic cats derived from the Near Eastern wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica) and were first domesticated in the Near East around 10,000 years ago. The spread of the domesticated form in Europe occurred much later, primarily mediated by Greek and Phoenician traders and afterward by Romans who introduced cats to Western and Central Europe around 2000 years ago. We investigated mtDNA of Holocene Felis remains and provide evidence of an unexpectedly early presence of cats bearing the Near Eastern wildcat mtDNA haplotypes in Central Europe, being ahead of Roman period by over 2000 years. The appearance of the Near Eastern wildcats in Central Europe coincides with the peak of Neolithic settlement density, moreover most of those cats belonged to the same mtDNA lineages as those domesticated in the Near East. Thus, although we cannot fully exclude that the Near Eastern wildcats appeared in Central Europe as a result of introgression with European wildcat, our findings support the hypothesis that the Near Eastern wildcats spread across Europe together with the first farmers, perhaps as commensal animals. We also found that cats dated to the Neolithic period belonged to different mtDNA lineages than those brought to Central Europe in Roman times, this supports the hypothesis that the gene pool of contemporary European domestic cats might have been established from two different source populations that contributed in different periods.

Ancient mitochondrial DNA and the genetic history of Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) in Europe.

After centuries of human hunting, the Eurasian beaver Castor fiber had disappeared from most of its original range by the end of the 19th century. The surviving relict populations are characterized by both low genetic diversity and strong phylogeographical structure. However, it remains unclear whether these attributes are the result of a human-induced, late Holocene bottleneck or already existed prior to this reduction in range. To investigate genetic diversity in Eurasian beaver populations during the Holocene, we obtained mitochondrial control region DNA sequences from 48 ancient beaver samples and added 152 modern sequences from GenBank. Phylogeographical analyses of the data indicate a differentiation of European beaver populations into three mitochondrial clades. The two main clades occur in western and eastern Europe, respectively, with an early Holocene contact zone in eastern Europe near a present-day contact zone. A divergent and previously unknown clade of beavers from the Danube Basin survived until at least 6000 years ago, but went extinct during the transition to modern times. Finally, we identify a recent decline in effective population size of Eurasian beavers, with a stronger bottleneck signal in the western than in the eastern clade. Our results suggest that the low genetic diversity and the strong phylogeographical structure in recent beavers are artefacts of human hunting-associated population reductions. While beaver populations have been growing rapidly since the late 19th century, genetic diversity within modern beaver populations remains considerably reduced compared to what was present prior to the period of human hunting and habitat reduction.

Pathological Changes in Early Medieval Horses from Different Archaeological Sites in Poland.

The work is the first comprehensive analysis of equine pathological changes from the Polish territory. The research material was collected from 20 archaeological sites, mainly early medieval settlements, such as strongholds, settlements, towns and horse graves. In the material examined, 186 cases of lesions were found. Of these, 26.9% were lesions of the spine, 39.8% lesions of the limb skeleton and 31.7% lesions of the head including dental pathologies. Most of the lesions in the limbs involved their distal segments. The vast majority of pathological cases can be linked to animal use. It was found that horses in which pathological lesions were observed were used under cover. In one case, the observed cranial trauma was the cause of death associated with injury to the nasal auricles and large vessels and consequent blood loss and possible shock. It was found that, in some of the cases, the horses started to be used early which affected their organs of motion and spine.

A probable case of "lumpy jaw" in early medieval (11th - 12th c.) cattle from a stronghold in Kruszwica, Poland.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this article is to try to determine the probable cause of the disease from which the study animal suffered. MATERIALS: The skeletal material included a caudal fragment of a cattle mandible. The specimen, exhibiting chronic disease was separated from approximately 10,000 early medieval cattle remains discovered during excavations of the former Kruszwica stronghold. METHODS: The bone was underwent macroscopic, radiological and histopathological examination. RESULTS: Location, macroscopic, microscopic and X-ray images of the lesions within the examined mandible indicate it could have been caused by the actinomycosis. CONCLUSIONS: In the face of infection, no effective therapies were undertaken in the Middle Ages. SIGNIFICANCE: Descriptions of lumpy jaw in the paleopathological literature are rare. This disease, due to its background and course, eliminated animals from breeding for centuries until the era of antibiotics. The case described in our paper is in an advanced stage, but its adult age suggests that efforts were possibly made to keep the cow alive as long as possible, indicating the significant economic importance of the animal. LIMITATIONS: This analysis is limited by the absence of other anatomical elements of the affected animal, which impacts the interpretation of the palaeopathological bone. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: It is recommended that similar studies are conducted on better preserved and more numerous cattle assemblages.

Chronology and social significance of the "princely" barrow cemetery in Leki Male and the Central European Early Bronze Age.

The "princely" barrows of Leki Male, Greater Poland are the oldest such monuments within the distribution area of Únetice societies in Central Europe. While in the Circum-Harz group and in Silesia similar rich furnished graves under mounds have appeared as single monuments as early as 1950 BC, Leki Male represents a chain of barrows constructed between 2150 BC and 1800 BC. Of the original 14 mounds, only four were preserved well enough that their complex biographies can now be reconstructed. They included ritual activities (before, during, and after the funeral), and also subsequent incursions, including robberies. The long lasting barrow cemetery at Leki Male can be linked to a nearby fortified site, Bruszczewo. Together, Leki Male and Bruszczewo represent a stable, socially differentiated society that existed for no less than 350-400 years. Therefore, it can be argued that the Early Bronze Age societies of Greater Poland were extremely sustainable in comparison to those of other Únetice regions.

Battle wound as a probable cause of the death of an early medieval horse in Ostrów Lednicki, Poland.

OBJECTIVE: In this paper we interpret a pathology observed in an early medieval horse skull discovered near the abutment of the eastern Gniezno bridge in Ostrów Lednicki in Poland. We consider the possible cause of the observed damage in the context of the armed invasion of the Czech prince Brzetyslaw and a battle of Ostrów Lednicki. MATERIALS: A skull of a 10-year-old male horse dated to the 11th century. METHODS: The skull was examined macroscopically and through computed tomography. Metric analysis was performed using digital callipers and the shoulder height was calculated. RESULTS: A penetrating lesion through the left frontal and nasal bones was observed. The floor and roof of the left conchofrontal sinus were destroyed along with the dorsal ethmoturbinates of the ethmoid labyrinth. CONCLUSIONS: The observed damage was most likely a result of trauma, which caused a fatal haemorrhage rather than sudden death. Considering the historical context and the area where the skull was discovered, it could be a battle wound. SIGNIFICANCE: This case is a rare example of an unhealed peri-mortem lesion in an animal skeleton that can be associated with an immediate cause of death. LIMITATIONS: The lack of a complete skeleton does not allow a complete analysis of horse's condition and circumstances associated with its death. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Identification of the tool or weapon that was used to deliver the blow.

Horses in the Early Medieval (10th-13th c.) Religious Rituals of Slavs in Polish Areas-An Archaeozoological, Archaeological and Historical Overview.

Knowledge about horses from early medieval (10th-13th c.) Poland has been largely based on historical and archaeological data. Archaeozoological information has only been used to a limited extent. Therefore, this article aims to present the current state of knowledge on this subject, drawing on archaeozoological data from studies of horse bones. Apart from confirming earlier reflections regarding the sacred significance of the horse, additional information was obtained about specific individuals who were the subject of magical treatments. It turned out that sites with horse skeletons and skulls are few compared to the familiar presence of horse remains among kitchen waste. This contrasts with the neighbouring regions, where horses were buried more frequently among the Germans, Scandinavians and Prussians. Some new data have been obtained thanks to taphonomic analyses, which demonstrated that horse skulls of apotropaic status were not only exposed to public viewing but were also deposited under stronghold ramparts. Horses suffering from infectious diseases could also be buried under such ramparts. Considerations in the article lead to conclusions that horses were used in religious rituals as sacrificial animals, apotropaic deposits, as fortune-telling animals and cosmological figures.

An accurate assignment test for extremely low-coverage whole-genome sequence data.

Genomic assignment tests can provide important diagnostic biological characteristics, such as population of origin or ecotype. Yet, assignment tests often rely on moderate- to high-coverage sequence data that can be difficult to obtain for fields such as molecular ecology and ancient DNA. We have developed a novel approach that efficiently assigns biologically relevant information (i.e., population identity or structural variants such as inversions) in extremely low-coverage sequence data. First, we generate databases from existing reference data using a subset of diagnostic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with a biological characteristic. Low-coverage alignment files are subsequently compared to these databases to ascertain allelic state, yielding a joint probability for each association. To assess the efficacy of this approach, we assigned haplotypes and population identity in Heliconius butterflies, Atlantic herring, and Atlantic cod using chromosomal inversion sites and whole-genome data. We scored both modern and ancient specimens, including the first whole-genome sequence data recovered from ancient Atlantic herring bones. The method accurately assigns biological characteristics, including population membership, using extremely low-coverage data (as low as 0.0001x) based on genome-wide SNPs. This approach will therefore increase the number of samples in evolutionary, ecological and archaeological research for which relevant biological information can be obtained.

Stable isotopes unveil one millennium of domestic cat paleoecology in Europe.

The domestic cat is the world's most popular pet and one of the most detrimental predators in terrestrial ecosystems. Effective protection of wildlife biodiversity demands detailed tracking of cat trophic ecology, and stable isotopes serve as a powerful proxy in dietary studies. However, a variable diet can make an isotopic pattern unreadable in opportunistic predators. To evaluate the usefulness of the isotopic method in cat ecology, we measured C and N isotope ratios in hundreds of archaeological cat bones. We determined trends in cat trophic paleoecology in northern Europe by exploiting population-scale patterns in animals from diverse locations. Our dataset shows a high variability of isotopic signals related to the socio-economic and/or geomorphological context. This points toward regularities in isotopic patterns across past cat populations. We provide a generalized guide to interpret the isotopic ecology of cats, emphasizing that regional isotopic baselines have a major impact on the isotopic signal.

Origin of the ornamented bâton percé from the Golebiewo site 47 as a trigger of discussion on long-distance exchange among Early Mesolithic communities of Central Poland and Northern Europe.

This article describes evidence for contact and exchange among Mesolithic communities in Poland and Scandinavia, based on the interdisciplinary analysis of an ornamented bâton percé from Golebiewo site 47 (Central Poland). Typological and chronological-cultural analyses show the artefact to be most likely produced in the North European Plain, during the Boreal period. Carbon-14 dating confirms the antiquity of the artefact. Ancient DNA analysis shows the artefact to be of Rangifer tarandus antler. Following this species designation, a dispersion analysis of Early-Holocene reindeer remains in Europe was conducted, showing this species to exist only in northern Scandinavia and north-western Russia in this period. Therefore, the bâton from Golebiewo constitutes the youngest reindeer remains in the European Plain and south-western Scandinavia known to date. An attempt was made to determine the biogeographic region from which the antler used to produce the artefact originates from. To this end, comprehensive δ18O, δ13C and δ15N isotope analyses were performed. North Karelia and South Lapland were determined as the most probable regions in terms of isotopic data, results which correspond to the known distribution range of Rangifer tarandus at this time. In light of these finds, the likelihood of contact between Scandinavia and Central Europe in Early Holocene is evaluated. The bâton percé from Golebiewo is likely key evidence for long-distance exchange during the Boreal period.

Stable isotope evidence for late medieval (14th-15th C) origins of the eastern Baltic cod (Gadus morhua) fishery.

Although recent historical ecology studies have extended quantitative knowledge of eastern Baltic cod (Gadus morhua) exploitation back as far as the 16th century, the historical origin of the modern fishery remains obscure. Widespread archaeological evidence for cod consumption around the eastern Baltic littoral emerges around the 13th century, three centuries before systematic documentation, but it is not clear whether this represents (1) development of a substantial eastern Baltic cod fishery, or (2) large-scale importation of preserved cod from elsewhere. To distinguish between these hypotheses we use stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis to determine likely catch regions of 74 cod vertebrae and cleithra from 19 Baltic archaeological sites dated from the 8th to the 16th centuries. δ(13)C and δ(15)N signatures for six possible catch regions were established using a larger sample of archaeological cod cranial bones (n = 249). The data strongly support the second hypothesis, revealing widespread importation of cod during the 13th to 14th centuries, most of it probably from Arctic Norway. By the 15th century, however, eastern Baltic cod dominate within our sample, indicating the development of a substantial late medieval fishery. Potential human impact on cod stocks in the eastern Baltic must thus be taken into account for at least the last 600 years.