Exercise Volume Can Modulate the Regenerative Response to Spinal Cord Injury in Mice.

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) causes debilitating motor and sensory deficits that impair functional performance, and physical rehabilitation is currently the only established therapeutic reality in the clinical setting. In this study, we aimed to assess the effect of exercise of different volume and timing of intervention on functional recovery and neuromuscular regeneration in a mouse model of compressive SCI. Mice were assigned to one of four groups: laminectomy only (SHAM); injured, without treadmill training (SCI); injured, treadmill trained for 10 min until day 56 postinjury (TMT1); and injured, treadmill trained for two 10-min cycles with a 10-min pause between them until day 28 postinjury followed by the TMT1 protocol until day 56 postinjury (TMT3). On day 7 postinjury, animals started an eight-week treadmill-training exercise protocol and were trained three times a week. TMT3 mice had the best results in terms of neuroregeneration, functional recovery, and muscle plasticity as measured by functional and morphometric parameters. In conclusion, the volume of exercise can modulate the quality of the regenerative response to injury, when started in the acute phase and adjusted according to the inflammatory window.

NMDA receptor remodeling and nNOS activation in mice after unilateral striatal injury with 6-OHDA.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by selective dopaminergic loss. Non dopaminergic neurotransmitters such as glutamate are also involved in PD progression. NMDA receptor/postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95)/neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) activation is involved in neuronal excitability in PD. Here, we are focusing on the evaluating these post-synaptic protein levels in the 6-OHDA model of PD. Adult male C57BL/6 mice subjected to unilateral striatal injury with 6-OHDA were assessed at 1-, 2-, or 4-weeks post-lesion. Animals were subjected to an apomorphine-induced rotation test followed by the analysis of protein content, synaptic structure, and NOx production. All biochemical analysis was performed comparing the control versus lesioned sides of the same animal. 6-OHDA mice exhibited contralateral rotation activity, difficulties in coordinating movements, and changes in Iba-1 and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression during the whole period. At one week of survival, the mice showed a shift in NMDA composition, favoring the GluN2A subunit and increased PSD95 and nNOS expression and NOx formation. After two-weeks, a decrease in the total number of synapses was observed in the lesioned side. However, the number of excitatory synapses was increased with a higher content of GluN1 subunit and PSD95. After four weeks, NMDA receptor subunits restored to control levels. Interestingly, NOx formation in the serum increased. This study reveals, for the first time, the temporal course of behavioral deficits and glutamatergic synaptic plasticity through NMDAr subunit shift. Together, these data demonstrate that dopamine depletion leads to a fine adaptive response over time, which can be used for further studies of therapeutic management adjustments with the progression of PD.

Molecular approaches for spinal cord injury treatment.

Injuries to the spinal cord result in permanent disabilities that limit daily life activities. The main reasons for these poor outcomes are the limited regenerative capacity of central neurons and the inhibitory milieu that is established upon traumatic injuries. Despite decades of research, there is still no efficient treatment for spinal cord injury. Many strategies are tested in preclinical studies that focus on ameliorating the functional outcomes after spinal cord injury. Among these, molecular compounds are currently being used for neurological recovery, with promising results. These molecules target the axon collapsed growth cone, the inhibitory microenvironment, the survival of neurons and glial cells, and the re-establishment of lost connections. In this review we focused on molecules that are being used, either in preclinical or clinical studies, to treat spinal cord injuries, such as drugs, growth and neurotrophic factors, enzymes, and purines. The mechanisms of action of these molecules are discussed, considering traumatic spinal cord injury in rodents and humans.

Mesenchymal stem cells and treadmill training enhance function and promote tissue preservation after spinal cord injury.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is considered a serious neurological disorder that can lead to severe sensory, motor and autonomic deficits. In this work, we investigated whether cell therapy associated with physical activity after mouse SCI could promote morphological and functional outcomes, using a lesion model established by our group. Mesenchymal stem cells (8 × 105 cells/2 µL) or DMEM (2 µL), were injected in the epicenter of the lesion at 7 days after SCI, and the mice started a moderate treadmill training 14 days after injury. Functional assessments were performed weekly up to 8 weeks after injury when the morphological analyses were also performed. Four injured groups were analyzed: DMEM (SCI plus DMEM injection), MSCT (SCI plus MSC injection), DMEM + TMT (SCI plus DMEM injection and treadmill training) and MSCT + TMT (SCI plus MSC injection and treadmill training). The animals that received the combined therapy (MSCT + TMT) were able to recover and maintained the better functional results throughout the analyzed period. The morphometric analysis from MSCT + TMT group evidenced a larger spared white matter area and a higher number of preserved myelinated fibers with the majority of them reaching the ideal G-ratio values, when compared to other groups. Ultrastructural analysis from this group, using transmission electron microscopy, showed better tissue preservation with few microcavitations and degenerating nerve fibers. Also, this group exhibited a significantly higher neurotrophin 4 (NT4) expression as compared to the other groups. The results provided by this study support the conclusion that the association of strategies is a potential therapeutic approach to treat SCI, with the possibility of translation into the clinical practice.

Novel CCM1 (KRIT1) Mutation Detection in Brazilian Familial Cerebral Cavernous Malformation: Different Genetic Variants in Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Drug Metabolism Genes Affect Disease Aggressiveness.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) are vascular capillary anomalies with a dysfunctional endothelial adherent junction profile, depicting hemorrhage and epilepsy as the main clinical features. With the advent of an increasingly personalized medicine, better comprehension of genetic mechanisms behind CCM represents an important key in the management of the patients and risk rating in relatives. In this context, genetic factors that might influence clinical expressiveness of CCM need to be identified. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 33-year-old woman harboring multiple CCM lesions with a CCM1 mutational profile already being treated conservatively for a right mesial temporal lobe CCM presented with refractory seizures. Magnetic resonance imaging showed no bleeding in the lesion, and the patient was submitted to complete resection of the CCM. Histopathology of the CCM samples depicted an extensive inflammatory reaction and colocalization of CD20+ and CD68+ cells. Genetic analyses of the patient and her mother demonstrated a novel CCM1 (KRIT1) frameshift mutation (c.1661_1662insT; p.Leu554PhefsTer14). Furthermore, variants in CD14 (rs778588), TLR-4 (rs10759930), SOD2 (rs4880), APEX1 (rs1130409), and OGG1 (rs1052133), known as polymorphisms related to disease aggressiveness, were detected in the patient and not in her oligosymptomatic mother harboring the same CCM1 mutation. CONCLUSIONS: Heterogeneity of clinical manifestations among individuals with familial CCM with the same genotype adds mechanistic involvement of modifier factors as phenotypic markers. We describe a novel CCM1/KRIT1 familial mutation in which the coexistence of genetic variants in inflammation and oxidative stress may be related to variable expressiveness of the disease.

A simple, inexpensive and easily reproducible model of spinal cord injury in mice: morphological and functional assessment.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes motor and sensory deficits that impair functional performance, and significantly impacts life expectancy and quality. Animal models provide a good opportunity to test therapeutic strategies in vivo. C57BL/6 mice were subjected to laminectomy at T9 and compression with a vascular clip (30g force, 1min). Two groups were analyzed: injured group (SCI, n=33) and laminectomy only (Sham, n=15). Locomotor behavior (Basso mouse scale-BMS and global mobility) was assessed weekly. Morphological analyses were performed by LM and EM. The Sham group did not show any morphofunctional alteration. All SCI animals showed flaccid paralysis 24h after injury, with subsequent improvement. The BMS score of the SCI group improved until the intermediate phase (2.037+/-1.198); the Sham animals maintained the highest BMS score (8.981+/-0.056), p<0.001 during the entire time. The locomotor speed was slower in the SCI animals (5.581+/-0.871) than in the Sham animals (15.80+/-1.166), p<0.001. Morphological analysis of the SCI group showed, in the acute phase, edema, hemorrhage, multiple cavities, fiber degeneration, cell death and demyelination. In the chronic phase we observed glial scarring, neuron death, and remyelination of spared axons by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. In conclusion, we established a simple, reliable, and inexpensive clip compression model in mice, with functional and morphological reproducibility and good validity. The availability of producing reliable injuries with appropriate outcome measures represents great potential for studies involving cellular mechanisms of primary injury and repair after traumatic SCI.

Intraaxial and Extraaxial Cavernous Malformation with Venous Linkage: Immune Cellular Inflammation Associated with Aggressiveness.

BACKGROUND: Intraorbital and intracerebral cavernous malformation (CM) lesions are considered independent entities. Purely cerebral CMs have variable biology with recent evidence depicting inflammation as an important player and a risk factor for aggressiveness. We describe a case of concomitant left intraaxial and extraaxial CMs, linked by the ipsilateral basal vein, where the extraaxial component has developed an aggressive behavior. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 35-year-old female patient presented with a rapid and progressive exophthalmos and loss of vision on the left eye. Cranial magnetic resonance and angiography examinations demonstrated a left craniofacial CM and large intraorbital component. The lesion was connected through a large basal vein to a cerebral intraventricular CM. Transconjunctival resection showed typical findings of CM. A complete histopathology and immunostaining analysis was performed and revealed a clear acute lymphomononuclear reaction with a predominant immune cellular inflammation. CONCLUSIONS: A case of intraorbital and extracranial cavernomatous mass, connected to a cerebral intraventricular CM through a large basal vein, has presented with an aggressive course. A complete histopathologic and immunohistochemical analysis of the orbital mass has pictured a clear immune-cellular inflammatory reaction adding to the amounting evidence of association between inflammation and site aggressiveness in the setting of CMs.

Immunoelectron microscopy reveals the presence of neurofilament proteins in retinal terminals undergoing dark degeneration.

After nerve crushing or section, the distal stump undergoes morphological changes described as Wallerian degeneration (WD). Immediately after nerve injury, early ultrastructural alterations occur in the terminal boutons, a process known as terminal degeneration (TD), which occurs before degeneration of the axon and leads to electrophysiological impairment. In this study we investigated the presence of neurofilament (NF) proteins in TD and compared the results with degeneration in the optic nerve. Young adult Wistar rats were submitted to bilateral enucleation and perfused after 24 h, 48 h and 1 week. Optic nerves (ON) and superior colliculus (SC) segments were processed for electron microscopy (EM) and immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) for NF subunits. Analysis of ultrathin sections of SC, at 24 h, revealed terminals undergoing TD. At 48 h and 1 week after enucleation, there was a clear increase in the number of degenerating terminals. The cytoarchitecture of the optic nerve did not change considerably at 24 h, but it was progressively altered at 48 h and 1 week after enucleation, when we observed intense astrogliosis, and most fibers exhibited dark degeneration (DD). The IEM for the NF subunits of normal ON showed gold particles located along the filaments, but we did not observe labeling for neurofilament proteins in normal retinal terminals. However, 48 h after lesion, we observed immunogold particles for the NF proteins in fibers undergoing DD and on terminals undergoing TD. Therefore, we can conclude that NF proteins participate in the process of TD, and this event occurs before complete axonal degeneration, suggesting different mechanisms for TD and DD.

Lack of Galectin-3 attenuates neuroinflammation and protects the retina and optic nerve of diabetic mice.

Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of acquired blindness in working-age individuals. Recent work has revealed that neurodegeneration occurs earlier than vascular insult and that distal optic nerve damage precedes retinal degeneration and vascular insult. Since we have shown that optic nerve degeneration is reduced after optic nerve crush in Galectin-3 knockout (Gal-3 -/-) mice, we decided to investigate whether Gal-3 -/- could relieve inflammation and preserve both neurons and the structure of the retina and optic nerve following 8 weeks of diabetes. Diabetes was induced in 2-month-old male C57/bl6 WT or Gal-3 -/- mice by a single injection of streptozotocin (160 mg/kg). Histomorphometric retinal analyses showed no gross difference, except for a reduced number of retinal ganglion cells in WT diabetic mice, correlated to increased apoptosis. In the optic nerve, Gal-3 -/- mice showed reduced neuroinflammation, suggested by the smaller number of Iba1+ cells, particularly the amoeboid profiles in the distal end. Furthermore, iNOS staining was reduced in the optic nerves of Gal-3 -/- mice, as well as GFAP in the distal segment of the optic nerve. Finally, optic nerve histomorphometric analyses revealed that the number of myelinated fibers was higher in the Gal-3 -/- mice and myelin was more rectilinear compared to WT diabetic mice. Therefore, the present study provided evidence that Gal-3 is a central target that stimulates neuroinflammation and impairs neurological outcomes in visual complications of diabetes. Our findings provide support for the clinical use of Gal-3 inhibitors against diabetic visual complications in the near future.

Blockade of ATP P2X7 receptor enhances ischiatic nerve regeneration in mice following a crush injury.

Preventing damage caused by nerve degeneration is a great challenge. There is a growing body of evidence implicating extracellular nucleotides and their P2 receptors in many pathophysiological mechanisms. In this work we aimed to investigate the effects of the administration of Brilliant Blue G (BBG) and Pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2', 4'- disulphonic acid (PPADS), P2X7 and P2 non-selective receptor antagonists, respectively, on sciatic nerve regeneration. Four groups of mice that underwent nerve crush lesion were used: two control groups treated with vehicle (saline), a group treated with BBG and a group treated with PPADS during 28days. Gastrocnemius muscle weight was evaluated. For functional evaluation we used the Sciatic Functional Index (SFI) and the horizontal ladder walking test. Nerves, dorsal root ganglia and spinal cords were processed for light and electron microscopy. Antinoceptive effects of BBG and PPADS were evaluated through von Frey E, and the levels of IL-1ß and TNF-α were analyzed by ELISA. BBG promoted an increase in the number of myelinated fibers and on axon, fiber and myelin areas. BBG and PPADS led to an increase of TNF-α and IL-1ß in the nerve on day 1 and PPADS caused a decrease of IL-1ß on day 7. Mechanical allodynia was reversed on day 7 in the groups treated with BBG and PPADS. We concluded that BBG promoted a better morphological regeneration after ischiatic crush injury, but this was not followed by anticipation of functional improvement. In addition, both PPADS and BBG presented anti-inflammatory as well as antinociceptive effects.

Chronic spinal cord lesions respond positively to tranplants of mesenchymal stem cells.

PURPOSE: Despite substantial advances in surgical care and rehabilitation, the consequences of spinal cord injury (SCI) continue to present major challenges. Here we investigate whether transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in mice during the chronic stage of SCI has benefits in terms of morphological and functional outcomes. METHODS: Mice were subjected to laminectomy at the T9 level, followed by a 1 minute spinal cord compression with a vascular clip. Four weeks later, 8 × 105 MSCs obtained from GFP mice were injected into the injury site. After eight weeks the analyses were performed. RESULTS: The spinal cords of MSC-treated animals exhibited better white-matter preservation, greater numbers of fibers, higher levels of trophic factor expression, and better ultrastructural tissue organization. Furthermore, transplanted MSCs were not immunoreactive for neural markers, indicating that these cells mediate functional recovery through a paracrine effect, rather than by transforming into and replacing damaged glia in the spinal cord. MSC-treated mice also showed better functional improvement than control animals. CONCLUSION: We conclude that MSC-based cell therapy, even when applied during the chronic phase of SCI, leads to changes in a number of structural and functional parameters, all of which indicate improved recovery.

Participation of neurofilament proteins in axonal dark degeneration of rat's optic nerves.

Neurofilaments (NF) are neuronal intermediate filaments formed by three different subunits: high (NF-H), medium (NF-M) and light (NF-L). They are responsible for the determination and maintenance of axon caliber. Accumulation of NF or their immunoreactive products are components of several neurodegenerative disease lesions, such as neurofibrillary tangles, Lewy bodies and the spheroids of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Also, cytoskeletal breakdown is one of the first ultrastructural changes occurring after nerve crush or section. In the present study, Wistar rats were subjected to bilateral enucleation to induce Wallerian degeneration of optic nerve fibers and perfused 24 h, 48 h and 1 week later. Optic nerve segments were processed for electron microscopy (EM), light microscopy immunofluorescence (LM) and immunoelectronmicroscopy (IEM) for NF subunit detection. LM for NF of control nerves showed a slightly different pattern and intensity for each subunit, with more intense staining of NF-M and NF-H and less intense staining of NF-L. This reaction did not change considerably at 48 h, but was severely reduced 1 week after enucleation. Results of EM showed fibers in: (1) partial cytoskeleton degeneration or (2) watery degeneration or (3) dark degeneration. The number of dark degenerating axons was statistically higher at the latest time-interval studied. Neurofilament clumping areas and dark degenerating axons showed positive immunostaining for the three neurofilaments subunits when examined by IEM. These results suggest that dark degenerating axons develop from areas of neurofilament aggregation. We may also conclude that NF proteins participate in the process of axonal dark degeneration.

A highly reproducible mouse model of compression spinal cord injury.

Experimental spinal cord injury (SCI) can maintain the continuity of the spinal cord, as in the contusion (e.g., weight-fall) or compression models, or not, when there is a partial or a complete transection. The majority of acute human SCI is not followed by complete transection, but there is a combination of contusion, compression, and possibly partial transection. The method described here is a compressive mouse model that presents a combination of contusion and compression components and has many facilities in its execution. This lesion was established by our group and represents a simple, reliable, and inexpensive clip compression model with functional and morphological reproducibility. In this chapter we describe, step by step, the protocol of this experimental SCI.

A combination of Schwann-cell grafts and aerobic exercise enhances sciatic nerve regeneration.

BACKGROUND: Despite the regenerative potential of the peripheral nervous system, severe nerve lesions lead to loss of target-organ innervation, making complete functional recovery a challenge. Few studies have given attention to combining different approaches in order to accelerate the regenerative process. OBJECTIVE: Test the effectiveness of combining Schwann-cells transplantation into a biodegradable conduit, with treadmill training as a therapeutic strategy to improve the outcome of repair after mouse nerve injury. METHODS: Sciatic nerve transection was performed in adult C57BL/6 mice; the proximal and distal stumps of the nerve were sutured into the conduit. Four groups were analyzed: acellular grafts (DMEM group), Schwann cell grafts (3×105/2 µL; SC group), treadmill training (TMT group), and treadmill training and Schwann cell grafts (TMT + SC group). Locomotor function was assessed weekly by Sciatic Function Index and Global Mobility Test. Animals were anesthetized after eight weeks and dissected for morphological analysis. RESULTS: Combined therapies improved nerve regeneration, and increased the number of myelinated fibers and myelin area compared to the DMEM group. Motor recovery was accelerated in the TMT + SC group, which showed significantly better values in sciatic function index and in global mobility test than in the other groups. The TMT + SC group showed increased levels of trophic-factor expression compared to DMEM, contributing to the better functional outcome observed in the former group. The number of neurons in L4 segments was significantly higher in the SC and TMT + SC groups when compared to DMEM group. Counts of dorsal root ganglion sensory neurons revealed that TMT group had a significant increased number of neurons compared to DMEM group, while the SC and TMT + SC groups had a slight but not significant increase in the total number of motor neurons. CONCLUSION: These data provide evidence that this combination of therapeutic strategies can significantly improve functional and morphological recovery after sciatic injury.

Human dental pulp cells: a new source of cell therapy in a mouse model of compressive spinal cord injury.

Strategies aimed at improving spinal cord regeneration after trauma are still challenging neurologists and neuroscientists throughout the world. Many cell-based therapies have been tested, with limited success in terms of functional outcome. In this study, we investigated the effects of human dental pulp cells (HDPCs) in a mouse model of compressive spinal cord injury (SCI). These cells present some advantages, such as the ease of the extraction process, and expression of trophic factors and embryonic markers from both ecto-mesenchymal and mesenchymal components. Young adult female C57/BL6 mice were subjected to laminectomy at T9 and compression of the spinal cord with a vascular clip for 1 min. The cells were transplanted 7 days or 28 days after the lesion, in order to compare the recovery when treatment is applied in a subacute or chronic phase. We performed quantitative analyses of white-matter preservation, trophic-factor expression and quantification, and ultrastructural and functional analysis. Our results for the HDPC-transplanted animals showed better white-matter preservation than the DMEM groups, higher levels of trophic-factor expression in the tissue, better tissue organization, and the presence of many axons being myelinated by either Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes, in addition to the presence of some healthy-appearing intact neurons with synapse contacts on their cell bodies. We also demonstrated that HDPCs were able to express some glial markers such as GFAP and S-100. The functional analysis also showed locomotor improvement in these animals. Based on these findings, we propose that HDPCs may be feasible candidates for therapeutic intervention after SCI and central nervous system disorders in humans.

Predifferentiated embryonic stem cells promote functional recovery after spinal cord compressive injury.

We tested the effects of mouse embryonic stem cells (mES) grafts in mice spinal cord injury (SCI). Young adult female C57/Bl6 mice were subjected to laminectomy at T9 and 1-minute compression of the spinal cord with a vascular clip. Four groups were analyzed: laminectomy (Sham), injured (SCI), vehicle (DMEM), and mES-treated (EST). mES pre-differentiated with retinoic acid were injected (8 x 10(5) cells/2 microl) into the lesion epicenter, 10 min after SCI. Basso mouse scale (BMS) and Global mobility test (GMT) were assessed weekly up to 8 weeks, when morphological analyses were performed. GMT analysis showed that EST animals moved faster (10.73+/-0.9076, +/-SEM) than SCI (5.581+/-0.2905) and DMEM (5.705+/-0.2848), but slower than Sham animals (15.80+/-0.3887, p<0.001). By BMS, EST animals reached the final phase of locomotor recovery (3.872+/-0.7112, p<0.01), while animals of the SCI and DMEM groups improved to an intermediate phase (2.037+/-0.3994 and 2.111+/-0.3889, respectively). White matter area and number of myelinated nerve fibers were greater in EST (46.80+/-1.24 and 279.4+/-16.33, respectively) than the SCI group (39.97+/-0.925 and 81.39+/-8.078, p<0.05, respectively). EST group also presented better G-ratio values when compared with SCI group (p<0.001). Immunohistochemical revealed the differentiation of transplanted cells into astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and Schwann cells, indicating an integration of transplanted cells with host tissue. Ultrastructural analysis showed, in the EST group, better tissue preservation and more remyelination by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells than the other groups. Our results indicate that acute transplantation of predifferentiated mES into the injured spinal cord increased the spared white matter and number of nerve fibers, improving locomotor function.

Transplantation of bone-marrow-derived cells into a nerve guide resulted in transdifferentiation into Schwann cells and effective regeneration of transected mouse sciatic nerve.

Peripheral nerves possess the capacity of self-regeneration after traumatic injury. Nevertheless, the functional outcome after peripheral-nerve regeneration is often poor, especially if the nerve injuries occur far from their targets. Aiming to optimize axon regeneration, we grafted bone-marrow-derived cells (BMDCs) into a collagen-tube nerve guide after transection of the mouse sciatic nerve. The control group received only the culture medium. Motor function was tested at 2, 4, and 6 weeks after surgery, using the sciatic functional index (SFI), and showed that functional recovery was significantly improved in animals that received the cell grafts. After 6 weeks, the mice were anesthetized, perfused transcardially, and the sciatic nerves were dissected and processed for transmission electron microscopy and light microscopy. The proximal and distal segments of the nerves were compared, to address the question of improvement in growth rate; the results revealed a maintenance and increase of nerve regeneration for both myelinated and non-myelinated fibers in distal segments of the experimental group. Also, quantitative analysis of the distal region of the regenerating nerves showed that the numbers of myelinated fibers, Schwann cells (SCs) and g-ratio were significantly increased in the experimental group compared to the control group. The transdifferentiation of BMDCs into Schwann cells was confirmed by double labeling with S100/and Hoechst staining. Our data suggest that BMDCs transplanted into a nerve guide can differentiate into SCs, and improve the growth rate of nerve fibers and motor function in a transected sciatic-nerve model.

Sciatic nerve regeneration is accelerated in galectin-3 knockout mice.

The success of peripheral nerve regeneration depends on intrinsic properties of neurons and a favorable environment, although the mechanisms underlying the molecular events during degeneration and regeneration are still not elucidated. Schwann cells are considered one of the best candidates to be closely involved in the success of peripheral nerve regeneration. These cells and invading macrophages are responsible for clearing myelin and axon debris, creating an appropriate route for a successful regeneration. After injury, Schwann cells express galectin-3, and this has been correlated with phagocytosis; also, in the presence of galectin-3, there is inhibition of Schwann-cell proliferation in vitro. In the present study we explored, in vivo, the effects of the absence of galectin-3 on Wallerian degeneration and nerve-fiber regeneration. We crushed the sciatic nerves of galectin-3 knockout and wild-type mice, and followed the pattern of degeneration and regeneration from 24 h up to 3 weeks. We analyzed the number of myelinated fibers, axon area, fiber area, myelin area, G-ratio and immunofluorescence for beta-catenin, macrophages and Schwann cells in DAPI counterstained sections. Galectin-3 knockout mice showed earlier functional recovery and faster regeneration than the wild-type animals. We concluded that the absence of galectin-3 allowed faster regeneration, which may be associated with increased growth of Schwann cells and expression of beta-catenin. This would favor neuron survival, followed by faster myelination, culminating in a better morphological and functional outcome.

Treatment of spinal cord injury with biomaterials and stem cell therapy in non-human primates and humans.

Spinal cord injury results in the loss of sensory, motor, and autonomic functions, which almost always produces permanent physical disability. Thus, in the search for more effective treatments than those already applied for years, which are not entirely efficient, researches have been able to demonstrate the potential of biological strategies using biomaterials to tissue manufacturing through bioengineering and stem cell therapy as a neuroregenerative approach, seeking to promote neuronal recovery after spinal cord injury. Each of these strategies has been developed and meticulously evaluated in several animal models with the aim of analyzing the potential of interventions for neuronal repair and, consequently, boosting functional recovery. Although the majority of experimental research has been conducted in rodents, there is increasing recognition of the importance, and need, of evaluating the safety and efficacy of these interventions in non-human primates before moving to clinical trials involving therapies potentially promising in humans. This article is a literature review from databases (PubMed, Science Direct, Elsevier, Scielo, Redalyc, Cochrane, and NCBI) from 10 years ago to date, using keywords (spinal cord injury, cell therapy, non-human primates, humans, and bioengineering in spinal cord injury). From 110 retrieved articles, after two selection rounds based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, 21 articles were analyzed. Thus, this review arises from the need to recognize the experimental therapeutic advances applied in non-human primates and even humans, aimed at deepening these strategies and identifying the advantages and influence of the results on extrapolation for clinical applicability in humans.