Phytosterol Composition of Arachis hypogaea Seeds from Different Maturity Classes.

The seeds of cultivated peanut, Arachis hypogaea, are an agronomically important crop produced for human nutrition, oilseed and feed stock. Peanut seed is the single most expensive variable input cost and thus producers require seed with excellent performance in terms of germination efficiency. During the maturation process, triglycerides are stored in oil bodies as an energy resource during germination and seedling development. The stability of oil body membranes is essential for nutrient mobilization during germination. This study focused on evaluating the phytosterol composition in seed components including the kernel, embryo (heart), and seed coat or skin. Samples of different maturity classes were analyzed for macronutrient and phytosterol content. The three biosynthetic end products in the phytosterol pathway, ß-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol, comprised 82.29%, 86.39% and 94.25% of seed hearts, kernels and seed coats, respectively. Stigmasterol concentration was highest in the seed kernel, providing an excellent source of this sterol known to have beneficial effects on human health. Peanut hearts contained the highest concentration of sterols by mass, potentially providing protection and resources for the developing seedling. The amount of α-tocopherol increases in peanut hearts during the maturation process, providing protection from temperature stress, as well as stability required for seedling vigor. These results suggest that phytosterols may play a significant role in the performance of seeds, and provide a possible explanation for the poor germination efficiency of immature seeds.

Data for Community Health Assessment in Rural Colorado: A Comparison of Electronic Health Records to Public Health Surveys to Describe Childhood Obesity.

CONTEXT: Community-level data are necessary to inform community health assessments and to plan for appropriate interventions. However, data derived from public health surveys may be limited or unavailable in rural locations. OBJECTIVE: We compared 2 sources of data for community health assessment in rural Colorado, electronic health records (EHRs) and routine public health surveys. DESIGN: Comparison of cross-sectional measures of childhood/youth obesity prevalence and data quality. SETTING: Two rural Colorado counties, La Plata and Prowers. PARTICIPANTS: The EHR cohort comprised patients 2 to 19 years of age who underwent a visit with the largest health care provider in each county. These data included sex, age, weight, height, race, ethnicity, and insurance status. Public health survey data were obtained from 2 surveys, the Colorado Child Health Survey (2-14 years of age) and the Healthy Kids Colorado Survey (15-19 years of age) and included caregiver and self-reported height and weight estimates. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We calculated body mass index percentile for each patient and survey respondent and determined overweight/obesity prevalence by county. We evaluated data source quality indicators according to a rubric developed for this analysis. RESULTS: The EHR sample captured approximately 35% (n = 3965) and 70% (n = 2219) of all children living in La Plata and Prowers Counties, respectively. The EHR prevalence estimates of overweight/obesity were greater in precision than survey data in both counties among children 2 to 14 years of age. In addition, the EHR data were more timely and geographically representative than survey data and provided directly measured height and weight. Conversely, survey data were easier to access and more demographically representative of the overall population. CONCLUSIONS: Electronic health records describing the prevalence of obesity among children/youth living in rural Colorado may complement public health survey data for community health assessment and health improvement planning.

Predicting arsenic concentrations in groundwater of San Luis Valley, Colorado: implications for individual-level lifetime exposure assessment.

Consumption of inorganic arsenic in drinking water at high levels has been associated with chronic diseases. Risk is less clear at lower levels of arsenic, in part due to difficulties in estimating exposure. Herein we characterize spatial and temporal variability of arsenic concentrations and develop models for predicting aquifer arsenic concentrations in the San Luis Valley, Colorado, an area of moderately elevated arsenic in groundwater. This study included historical water samples with total arsenic concentrations from 595 unique well locations. A longitudinal analysis established temporal stability in arsenic levels in individual wells. The mean arsenic levels for a random sample of 535 wells were incorporated into five kriging models to predict groundwater arsenic concentrations at any point in time. A separate validation dataset (n = 60 wells) was used to identify the model with strongest predictability. Findings indicate that arsenic concentrations are temporally stable (r = 0.88; 95 % CI 0.83-0.92 for samples collected from the same well 15-25 years apart) and the spatial model created using ordinary kriging best predicted arsenic concentrations (ρ = 0.72 between predicted and observed validation data). These findings illustrate the value of geostatistical modeling of arsenic and suggest the San Luis Valley is a good region for conducting epidemiologic studies of groundwater metals because of the ability to accurately predict variation in groundwater arsenic concentrations.

A case-cohort study examining lifetime exposure to inorganic arsenic in drinking water and diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: Consumption of drinking water with high levels of inorganic arsenic (over 500 µg/L) has been associated with type II diabetes mellitus (DM), but previous studies have been inconclusive about risks at lower levels (<100 µg/L). We present a case-cohort study based on individual estimates of lifetime arsenic exposure to examine the relationship between chronic low-level arsenic exposure and risk of DM. METHODS: This case-cohort study included 141 cases of DM diagnosed between 1984 and 1998 as part of the prospective San Luis Valley Diabetes Study. A comparison sub-cohort of 488 participants was randomly sampled from 936 eligible participants who were disease free at baseline. Individual lifetime arsenic exposure estimates were determined using a methodology that incorporates the use of a structured interview to determine lifetime residence and employment history, geospatial modeling of arsenic concentrations in drinking water, and urine arsenic concentrations. A Cox proportional hazards model with known DM risk factors as time-dependent covariates was used to assess the association between lifetime exposure to inorganic arsenic in drinking water and incident DM. RESULTS: Our findings show a significant association between inorganic arsenic exposure and DM risk (hazard ratio [HR]=1.27, 95%=1.01, 1.59 per 15 µg/L) while adjusting for ethnicity and time varying covariates age, body mass index and physical activity level. CONCLUSIONS: Exposure to low-level inorganic arsenic in drinking water is associated with increased risk for type II DM in this population based on a comprehensive lifetime exposure assessment.

Local Wellness Policy 5 years later: is it making a difference for students in low-income, rural Colorado elementary schools?

INTRODUCTION: The federally mandated Local Wellness Policy (LWP) was intended to promote student health in schools. This study assesses the 5-year effects of the LWP on the health practices of rural elementary schools in Colorado. METHODS: One year before and 5 years after the LWP mandate, a survey was administered to a random sample of principals, physical education (PE) teachers, and food-service managers in 45 rural, low-income elementary schools in Colorado. Response rates were 71% in 2005 and 89% in 2011. RESULTS: Minutes for PE and recess did not increase, nor did offerings of fresh fruits and vegetables. More schools adopted policies prohibiting teachers from taking recess away as punishment (9.7% in 2005 vs 38.5% in 2011, P = .02) or for making up missed instructional time, class work, or tests in other subjects (3.2% in 2005 vs 28.2% in 2011, P = .03). More schools scheduled recess before lunch (22.6% in 2005 vs 46.2% in 2011, P = .04) and developed policies for vending machines (42.9% in 2005 vs 85.7% in 2011, P = .01) and parties (21.4% in 2005 vs 57.9% in 2011, P = .004). CONCLUSION: Changes in school practices are modest, and arguably the important school practices such as increased PE and recess time and increased offerings of fruits and vegetables in the lunch line have not changed in the 5 years since the mandate went into effect. Further investigation is needed to identify the knowledge, skills, and attitudes as well as financial and physical resources required for school administrators to make changes in school practices.

The influence of social involvement, neighborhood aesthetics, and community garden participation on fruit and vegetable consumption.

OBJECTIVES: We considered the relationship between an urban adult population's fruit and vegetable consumption and several selected social and psychological processes, beneficial aesthetic experiences, and garden participation. METHODS: We conducted a population-based survey representing 436 residents across 58 block groups in Denver, Colorado, from 2006 to 2007. We used multilevel statistical models to evaluate the survey data. RESULTS: Neighborhood aesthetics, social involvement, and community garden participation were significantly associated with fruit and vegetable intake. Community gardeners consumed fruits and vegetables 5.7 times per day, compared with home gardeners (4.6 times per day) and nongardeners (3.9 times per day). Moreover, 56% of community gardeners met national recommendations to consume fruits and vegetables at least 5 times per day, compared with 37% of home gardeners and 25% of nongardeners. CONCLUSIONS: Our study results shed light on neighborhood processes that affect food-related behaviors and provides insights about the potential of community gardens to affect these behaviors. The qualities intrinsic to community gardens make them a unique intervention that can narrow the divide between people and the places where food is grown and increase local opportunities to eat better.

Molecular probing of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae sterol 24-C methyltransferase reveals multiple amino acid residues involved with C2-transfer activity.

Two families of sterol C24-methyltransferase (SMT) are responsible for the formation of the ergostane (C(1)-transfer activity; SMT1) and stigmastane (C(2)-transfer activity: SMT2) sterol side chains, respectively. The fungal Saccharomyces cerevisiae SMT1 (Erg6p) operates the first C(1)-transfer in concerted fashion to form a single product whereas the protozoan and plant SMTs are bifunctional capable of catalyzing two sequential, mechanistically distinct C-methylation activities in the conversion of a Delta(24)-sterol acceptor to diverse doubly alkylated products. Previous mutation of the amino acids of Erg6p at D79, Y81 and E82 afforded C(1) or C(2)-transfer activities typical of the protozoan and plant SMT. In this study, scanning mutagenesis experiments involving a leucine replacement of 52 amino acids in Erg6p followed by substitution of key residues with functionally or structurally similar amino acids indicated that 5 new residues at positions Y192, G217, G218, T219 and Y223 can switch the course of C(1)-transfer activity to include plant-like C(2)-transfer activity. The data support a model in which several conserved and non-conserved amino acids located in distinct regions of the Erg6p regulate the course of the C-methylation reaction toward product differences.

Early impact of the federally mandated Local Wellness Policy on physical activity in rural, low-income elementary schools in Colorado.

The What's Working project described the initial impact of the United States' federally mandated Local Wellness Policy in rural, low-income elementary schools located in Colorado. Before and after the Local Wellness Policy mandate went into effect, a survey about school features related to nutrition and physical activity was sent to a random sample of 45 rural elementary schools (i.e., schools located outside of urban areas), in which at least 40% of students qualified for free or reduced-cost lunch. Overall, opportunities for physical activity did not change after the policy went into effect: although time in physical education increased by 14 min per week (P=0.10), time for recess decreased by roughly 19 min per week (P=0.10). Policies supporting student participation in physical education and recess (an unstructured time during school hours when students are allowed to play outside) did not change. The researchers coded Local Wellness Policies and found them to have weak wording that produced minimal impact. Content analysis of key informant interviews suggested several barriers to the impact of the Local Wellness Policies: (1) competing pressures facing school districts, (2) lack of resources devoted to the Local Wellness Policy, (3) principals' lack of knowledge about the policy, and (4) lack of accountability mechanisms to ensure policy implementation. Financial resources and more effective communication about Local Wellness Policies among school districts and principals are needed to elevate the importance of and increase opportunities for physical activity in rural, low-income Colorado elementary schools.

Collective efficacy in Denver, Colorado: Strengthening neighborhoods and health through community gardens.

Community gardens are viewed as a potentially useful environmental change strategy to promote active and healthy lifestyles but the scientific evidence base for gardens is limited. As a step towards understanding whether gardens are a viable health promotion strategy for local communities, we set out to examine the social processes that might explain the connection between gardens, garden participation and health. We analyzed data from semi-structured interviews with community gardeners in Denver. The analysis examined social processes described by community gardeners and how those social processes were cultivated by or supportive of activities in community gardens. After presenting results describing these social processes and the activities supporting them, we discuss the potential for the place-based social processes found in community gardens to support collective efficacy, a powerful mechanism for enhancing the role of gardens in promoting health.

Validation of a survey instrument to assess home environments for physical activity and healthy eating in overweight children.

BACKGROUND: Few measures exist to measure the overall home environment for its ability to support physical activity (PA) and healthy eating in overweight children. The purpose of this study was to develop and test the reliability and validity of such a measure. METHODS: The Home Environment Survey (HES) was developed to reflect availability, accessibility, parental role modelling, and parental policies related to PA resources, fruits and vegetables (F&V), and sugar sweetened drinks and snacks (SS). Parents of overweight children (n = 219) completed the HES and concurrent behavioural assessments. Children completed the Block Kids survey and wore an accelerometer for one week. A subset of parents (n = 156) completed the HES a second time to determine test-retest reliability. Finally, 41 parent dyads living in the same home (n = 41) completed the survey to determine inter-rater reliability. Initial psychometric analyses were completed to trim items from the measure based on lack of variability in responses, moderate or higher item to scale correlation, or contribution to strong internal consistency. Inter-rater and test-retest reliability were completed using intraclass correlation coefficients. Validity was assessed using Pearson correlations between the HES scores and child and parent nutrition and PA. RESULTS: Eight items were removed and acceptable internal consistency was documented for all scales (alpha = .66-84) with the exception of the F&V accessibility. The F&V accessibility was reduced to a single item because the other two items did not meet reliability standards. Test-retest reliability was high (r > .75) for all scales. Inter-rater reliability varied across scales (r = .22-.89). PA accessibility, parent role modelling, and parental policies were all related significantly to child (r = .14-.21) and parent (r = .15-.31) PA. Similarly, availability of F&V and SS, parental role modelling, and parental policies were related to child (r = .14-36) and parent (r = .15-26) eating habits. CONCLUSION: The HES shows promise as a potentially valid and reliable assessment of the physical and social home environment related to a child's physical activity and eating habits.

Coaching process outcomes of a family visit nutrition and physical activity intervention.

The purpose of this article is to report the process outcomes of a coaching methodology used in a study designed to increase fruit and vegetable consumption and physical activity in families. Eighty-eight families with second graders were recruited from a rural, biethnic community in Colorado and randomized to intervention and delayed intervention conditions. This article reports on the 27 families in the delayed intervention group. Families received up to 10 home visits over 10 months from a family advisor and completed activities to improve their dietary and physical activity behaviors. Coaching conversations took place during each home visit. Coaching process outcomes were evaluated by analysis of visit documentation, participant survey, and qualitative interviews. Results indicated that coaching, in conjunction with family activities, engaged families in the process of change and facilitated movement toward the achievement of their weekly nutrition or physical activity goals. Coaching methodology may be particularly useful for participatory research.

A Community-Engaged Approach to Collecting Rural Health Surveillance Data.

PURPOSE: In order for communities to make health-related, data-driven decisions concerning resource allocation, needed services, and intervention priorities, they need an accurate picture of the health status of residents. While state and national health surveillance systems exist to help local communities make data-driven health decisions, rural communities face unique challenges including: (1) limited county-level data; (2) underrepresented segments of the population; and (3) a lack of survey items to address local health concerns. The purpose of this study was to take a community-engaged approach to collecting population-based health status data in a rural area in an effort to address some of these unique challenges. METHODS: Using a community-based participatory research (CBPR) approach, over 1,500 residents from 6 rural and frontier counties were randomly selected with a stratified, multistage cluster study design. Surveys were primarily completed over the phone. FINDINGS: Response rates by county ranged from 59% to 80% (overall = 66%). Males and younger adults (18-24 year olds) were underrepresented in the sample, but Hispanics, low-income residents, and cell phone-only users were adequately represented. Prevalence rates for chronic disease and health behavior varied by county. CONCLUSIONS: The implications of this project are that engaging stakeholders in community surveillance efforts increases the quality, relevance and utility of the information collected and can help reach otherwise difficult-to-reach populations. This can result in a more accurate picture of the health status of residents, which can lead to making health-related, data-driven decisions concerning resource allocation, needed services, and intervention priorities.

Adapting and implementing a long-term nutrition and physical activity curriculum to a rural, low-income, biethnic community.

This study adapted an urban-based school nutrition program for delivery in a rural community. Specific aims were to adapt the curriculum; expand it to include physical activity; determine effectiveness on students' attitudes, knowledge, and self-efficacy; and assess teachers' impressions. Three cohorts were established: 173 students taught by a resource teacher, 170 students taught by classroom teachers, and 187 students who did not receive the curriculum. Pre- and posttest surveys measured outcomes, and classroom teachers were observed and interviewed. The curriculum was shown to be effective in enhancing student outcomes for both the resource teacher and classroom teacher cohorts. Teachers reported that lessons needed to be simplified and that children enjoyed them. Findings support the transferability of an urban-based nutrition curriculum to a rural community and the need for students to receive health education annually.

The C161-->T polymorphism in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, but not P12A, is associated with insulin resistance in Hispanic and non-Hispanic white women: evidence for another functional variant in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma.

The P12A variant in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) gene has been intensely studied for association with obesity-related or type-2 diabetes-related traits; however, the results have been somewhat inconsistent in different populations. We genotyped a large cohort of Hispanic and non-Hispanic white individuals from the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study for P12A and another common variant, C161-->T, in the PPARgamma gene to determine if these sites were associated with fasting glucose, insulin, free fatty acid levels, insulin sensitivity, or body fat. There were no statistically significant frequency differences at these two sites between Hispanic and non-Hispanic individuals. No significant association with the metabolic phenotypes was observed for either of the polymorphisms in men; however, in women, significant associations were shown between the C161-->T variant and fasting insulin (P=.008) and the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA IR; P=.007). After adjusting for age, smoking, fat mass, and skin reflectance, linear regression showed that C161-->T explained 1.5% of the variation in both fasting insulin (P=.031) and HOMA IR (P=.028) whereas P12A contributed only 0.04% (fasting insulin, P=.268) and 0.02% (HOMA IR, P=.418) to the total trait variation. In the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study female patients, C161-->T appears to be a better predictor of fasting insulin levels and insulin resistance than P12A although the effect of this variant is small. These results support the hypothesis that C161-->T is in linkage disequilibrium with unidentified functional variation in PPARgamma or in a linked gene. This could explain some of the inconsistencies in the P12A association studies as the allele frequency and level of linkage disequilibrium of another functional polymorphism in the region could vary in different populations.

Physical activity in older, rural, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white adults.

PURPOSE: Understanding variations in physical activity patterns is important for planning health interventions. This study describes age-related change in physical activity in 903 rural Hispanic and non-Hispanic white (NHW) adults age 55-80. METHODS: The Physical Activity History assessed 13 categories of productive and recreational activity during the past year with up to four assessments per participant from 1987 to 1998. RESULTS: The most common activities were walking and home maintenance/gardening. Productive and recreational physical activity levels were lower in women than men (P < 0.0001), and within each gender group Hispanics had lower levels of both activity types than NHW (P values less than 0.05). In men, productive activity steadily declined with age in NHW and Hispanics. Recreational activity increased slightly until age 63, then decreased after age 70. In women, productive activity initially stayed stable then decreased in NHW after age 63, and in Hispanics it decreased at younger ages before stabilizing after age 70. Recreational activity levels decreased steadily with age in all women, with a steeper rate of decline in NHW than Hispanics. In both ethnic groups, activity levels were lower in diabetics than nondiabetics, except for recreational activity in women where levels did not differ by diabetes status. CONCLUSIONS: The most common activities were similar to other studies of older adults, both recreational and productive activities contributed to total activity, and physical activity decreased in all gender-ethnic subgroups with age. Hispanic women reported the lowest activity levels. Interventions to maintain or increase recreational activity may need to target women at an earlier age than men.

Association between lifetime exposure to inorganic arsenic in drinking water and coronary heart disease in Colorado residents.

BACKGROUND: Chronic diseases, including coronary heart disease (CHD), have been associated with ingestion of drinking water with high levels of inorganic arsenic (> 1,000 µg/L). However, associations have been inconclusive in populations with lower levels (< 100 µg/L) of inorganic arsenic exposure. OBJECTIVES: We conducted a case-cohort study based on individual estimates of lifetime arsenic exposure to examine the relationship between chronic low-level arsenic exposure and risk of CHD. METHODS: This study included 555 participants with 96 CHD events diagnosed between 1984 and 1998 for which individual lifetime arsenic exposure estimates were determined using data from structured interviews and secondary data sources to determine lifetime residence, which was linked to a geospatial model of arsenic concentrations in drinking water. These lifetime arsenic exposure estimates were correlated with historically collected urinary arsenic concentrations. A Cox proportional-hazards model with time-dependent CHD risk factors was used to assess the association between time-weighted average (TWA) lifetime exposure to low-level inorganic arsenic in drinking water and incident CHD. RESULTS: We estimated a positive association between low-level inorganic arsenic exposure and CHD risk [hazard ratio (HR): = 1.38, 95% CI: 1.09, 1.78] per 15 µg/L while adjusting for age, sex, first-degree family history of CHD, and serum low-density lipoprotein levels. The risk of CHD increased monotonically with increasing TWAs for inorganic arsenic exposure in water relative to < 20 µg/L (HR = 1.2, 95% CI: 0.6, 2.2 for 20-30 µg/L; HR = 2.2; 95% CI: 1.2, 4.0 for 30-45 µg/L; and HR = 3, 95% CI: 1.1, 9.1 for 45-88 µg/L). CONCLUSIONS: Lifetime exposure to low-level inorganic arsenic in drinking water was associated with increased risk for CHD in this population.

Genetic variation in uncoupling protein 3 is associated with dietary intake and body composition in females.

The uncoupling proteins (UCPs) are a family of mitochondrial transport proteins that promote proton leakage across the inner mitochondrial membrane, uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production and releasing energy as heat. Variation in these genes may disrupt biochemical pathways influencing thermogenesis, energy metabolism, and fuel substrate partitioning and oxidation, which may in turn predispose to obesity. We genotyped polymorphisms in UCP2 and UCP3 in a sample of nondiabetic participants (n = 722) of the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study (SLVDS) and found female-specific associations between UCP3 polymorphisms and measures of dietary intake and body composition. The UCP3-5 variant was statistically significantly associated with total caloric intake (P =.012), fat intake (P =.011), fat mass (P =.004), and lean mass (P =.013), with the C allele corresponding to higher dietary intake and lower fat mass and lean mass. The UCP3p-55 and the UCP3-3 polymorphisms, which were in high linkage disequilibrium (D' = 0.9776), showed similar patterns of association with total caloric intake (P =.031 and P =.042, respectively) and lean mass (P =.035 and P =.059, respectively), with the rare alleles corresponding to higher total intake and lean mass. No statistically significant associations were detected between the outcome variables and polymorphisms in UCP2. Two-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), used to evaluate the multi-locus effects and interactions between UCP3-5 and UCP3p-55, showed association with the main effect terms, but no evidence for statistically significant interaction between UCP3-5 and UCP3p-55 in regard to dietary intake. The UCP3-5 polymorphism was the only statistically significant genetic predictor of fat mass. The lean mass model showed no statistically significant association with either UCP3 variant. These results support a role for UCP3 in fuel substrate management and energy metabolism, which may influence body weight regulation.

Genetic variation in fatty acid-binding protein-4 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma interactively influence insulin sensitivity and body composition in males.

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are closely related, multifactorial metabolic conditions characterized by alterations in energy metabolism and glucose homeostasis, respectively. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor that regulates genes involved in lipid and glucose homeostasis, including the adipocyte-specific fatty acid-binding protein (FABP4). In turn, FABP4 binds fatty acids and transports them to the nucleus where the FABP4/fatty acid complex activates PPARgamma in a positive feedback loop. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that the polymorphisms, FABP4-376 and PPARgamma Pro12Ala, interactively influence insulin sensitivity and body composition in nondiabetic, Hispanic and non-Hispanic white males (n = 314) participating in the San Luis Valley Diabetes Study (SLVDS). Although the individual sites were not statistically significantly associated with any of the outcomes, we found statistically significant interaction terms in 2-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) models for homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (P =.014) and lean mass (P =.019). While the PPARgamma Pro12Ala site was the only statistically significant predictor of fat mass in the 2-way model (P =.012), the FABP4 and PPARgamma main effect terms individually became stronger when considered in one model compared with the analysis of each polymorphism separately. These findings provide evidence that FABP4 and PPARgamma work together to influence a biologic pathway affecting insulin sensitivity and body composition, illustrating the importance of investigating the joint effect of genes in determining susceptibility for complex disease.