The role of iron in plant host-pathogen interactions.

Iron is unlikely to be readily available in plant tissues for invading microorganisms. Soft rot, caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi strain 3937 on African violets, is a valuable model for studying the role of iron and its ligands in plant-pathogen interactions. These studies could lead to the development of new control strategies against microbial infections of plants.

Simultaneous expression of NAD-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase and other krebs cycle genes after nitrate resupply to short-term nitrogen-starved tobacco

Mitochondrial NAD-dependent (IDH) and cytosolic NADP-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenases have been considered as candidates for the production of 2-oxoglutarate required by the glutamine synthetase/glutamate synthase cycle. The increase in IDH transcripts in leaf and root tissues, induced by nitrate or NH4+ resupply to short-term N-starved tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants, suggested that this enzyme could play such a role. The leaf and root steady-state mRNA levels of citrate synthase, acotinase, IDH, and glutamine synthetase were found to respond similarly to nitrate, whereas those for cytosolic NADP-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase and fumarase responded differently. This apparent coordination occurred only at the mRNA level, since activity and protein levels of certain corresponding enzymes were not altered. Roots and leaves were not affected to the same extent either by N starvation or nitrate addition, the roots showing smaller changes in N metabolite levels. After nitrate resupply, these organs showed different response kinetics with respect to mRNA and N metabolite levels, suggesting that under such conditions nitrate assimilation was preferentially carried out in the roots. The differential effects appeared to reflect the C/N status after N starvation, the response kinetics being associated with the nitrate assimilatory capacity of each organ, signaled either by nitrate status or by metabolite(s) associated with its metabolism.

Characterization of the sink/source transition in tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum L.) shoots in relation to nitrogen management and leaf senescence.

The metabolic, biochemical and molecular events occurring during tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaf ageing are presented, with a particular emphasis on nitrogen metabolism. An integrated model describing the source/sink relationship existing between leaves of different developmental stages along the main plant axis is proposed. The results of our study show that a tobacco plant can be divided into two main sections with regards to sink/source relationships. Sink-to-source transition occurs at a particular leaf stage in which a breakpoint corresponding to an accumulation of carbohydrates and a depletion of both organic and inorganic nitrogen is observed. The sink/source transition is also marked by the appearence of endoproteolytic activities and the induction of both cytosolic glutamine synthetase and NAD(H)-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase transcripts, proteins and activities. The role of the newly induced enzymes and the nature of the potential metabolic and developmental signals involved in the regulation of their expression during leaf senescence are discussed.

Immunolocalization of glutamine synthetase in senescing tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) leaves suggests that ammonia assimilation is progressively shifted to the mesophyll cytosol.

Glutamine synthetase (GS) catalyses the formation of glutamine (a major form of nitrogen transport in plants) in an ATP-dependent reaction using ammonium and glutamate. This enzyme is present in the plastids and/or in the cytosol depending on the plant or the organ examined. In order to understand the role of GS isoforms in the remobilization of leaf nitrogen, we studied the localization of GS isoenzymes during natural senescence of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) leaves. Parallel to the progression of leaf senescence, an increase in cytosolic GS polypeptides was detected in the mesophyll cytosol of senescing leaves while a significant decrease in GS protein content was observed in the phloem companion cells. The presence of GS polypeptides in the leaf cytosol of senescing leaves appears to be the result of an induction of the Gln1-3 gene, the transcripts of which are not detected in mature leaves but are abundant in senescing leaves. Alltogether, our results suggest that during senescence, ammonia assimilation is progressively shifted from the chloroplasts to the cytosol of leaf mesophyll cells.

Differential expression of two siderophore-dependent iron-acquisition pathways in Erwinia chrysanthemi 3937: characterization of a novel ferrisiderophore permease of the ABC transporter family.

In planta expression of a high-affinity iron-uptake system involving the siderophore chrysobactin in Erwinia chrysanthemi 3937 contributes greatly to invasive growth of this pathogen on its natural host, African violets. A previous study reported that global regulation by iron in this strain was mediated at the transcriptional level via the cbr locus which, when inactivated by insertional mutation, prevents the chrysobactin system from being tightly repressed by FeCl3. Herein, we report the nucleotide sequence of this locus and the functional analysis of its encoded products. Sequence analysis of a 4.8 kb genomic segment of a plasmid encompassing the cbr locus and characterization of the cognate translated products made it possible to uncover a system exhibiting similarity with prokaryotic transporters implicated in the transport of iron complexes. Accordingly, the CbrA product was shown to be the periplasmic component of a permease complex also including two integral membrane proteins, CbrB and CbrC, and the ATP-binding unit CbrD. This system allowed internalization of Fe(III) when supplied to bacterial cells as 59FeCl3 or 59Fe dicitrate, via complexation to a second siderophore recently detected in strain 3937. Most notably, we demonstrate that this second siderophore-mediated iron-acquisition system is operational in bacterial cells grown in the presence of FeCl3. The regulatory effect of cbr was further assessed on a lacZ chrysobactin operon fusion indicating that the transcriptional control exerted by cbr on expression of the chrysobactin system is of homeostatic nature. in conclusion, E. chrysanthemi provides an interesting model in which iron acquisition involves an inductive process resulting in differential expression of two siderophore-mediated pathways in relation to external iron accessibility.

Characterization of the pelL gene encoding a novel pectate lyase of Erwinia chrysanthemi 3937.

Erwinia chrysanthemi 3937 secretes five major isoenzymes of pectate lyases encoded by the pelA, pelB, pelC, pelD and pelE genes. Recently, a new set of pectate lyases was identified in E. chrysanthemi mutants deleted of those pel genes. We cloned the pelL gene, encoding one of these secondary pectate lyases of E. chrysanthemi 3937, from a genomic bank of a strain deleted of the five major pel genes. The nucleotide sequence of the region containing the pelL gene was determined. The pelL reading frame is 1275 bases long, corresponding to a protein of 425 amino acids including a typical amino-terminal signal sequence of 25 amino acids. Comparison of the amino acid sequences of PelL and the exo-pectate lyase PelX of E. chrysanthemi EC16 revealed a low homology, limited to 220 residues of the central part of the proteins. No homology was detected with other bacterial pectinolytic enzymes. Regulation of pelL transcription was analysed using gene fusion. As shown for the other pel genes, the transcription of pelL is dependent on various environmental conditions. It is induced by pectic catabolic products and affected by growth phase, temperature, iron starvation, osmolarity, anaerobiosis, nitrogen starvation and catabolite repression. Regulation of pelL expression appeared to be independent of the KdgR repressor, which controls all the steps of pectin catabolism. In contrast, the pecS gene, which is involved in regulation of the synthesis of the major pectate lyases and of cellulase, also appeared to be involved in pelL expression. The PelL protein is able to macerate plant tissue. This enzyme has a basic isoelectric point, presents an endo-cleaving activity on polygalacturonate or partially methylated pectin, with a basic pH optimum and an absolute requirement for Ca2+. The pelL mutant displayed a reduced virulence on potato tubers and Saintpaulia ionantha plants, demonstrating the important role of this enzyme in soft-rot disease.

Glutamine and alpha-ketoglutarate are metabolite signals involved in nitrate reductase gene transcription in untransformed and transformed tobacco plants deficient in ferredoxin-glutamine-alpha-ketoglutarate aminotransferase.

Transformed tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) plants with varying activities of the key enzyme of ammonia assimilation, ferredoxin-glutamine-alpha-ketoglutarate aminotransferase (Fd-GOGAT; EC 1.4.7.1), were used to examine the roles of ammonium, glutamine (Gln) and alpha-ketoglutarate (alpha-KG) in the regulation of nitrate reductase (NR; EC 1.6.6.1) transcript abundance. In wild-type leaf discs, NR mRNA abundance was increased following feeding with NO3-, sucrose and alpha-KG and decreased by feeding Gln. In air, leaves with decreased GOGAT accumulated Gln and alpha-KG simultaneously; this was accompanied by increased NR transcripts. The inhibition of NR transcription by Gln observed in leaf-disc experiments was therefore not observed in the low-Fd-GOGAT plants that accumulate Gln in vivo. The results suggest that the negative effect of Gln on NR transcript abundance was offset by high alpha-KG and that the relative amounts of alpha-KG and Gln are more important in controlling NR gene transcription than the concentration of either metabolite alone.