Toxicodynamic modeling of highly toxic organophosphorus compounds.

Although the in vitro effect of organophosphorus (OP) compounds on acetylcholine-esterase (AChE) has been studied extensively, the hypothesis that OP inhibition of AChE is the primary mechanism of acute in vivo OP toxicity has been controversial. For example, a recent review (Pope and Liu, 2004) suggested that OP compounds have direct toxic effects on other enzymes, ACh receptors, and receptor/ channel complexes that are independent of AChE inhibition. The purpose of this report is to examine the hypothesis that AChE inhibition is the mechanism of acute toxicity of OP compounds by mathematically modeling the in vivo lethal effects of highly toxic OP compounds and determining the amount of variation in OP toxicity that is explained by AChE inhibition.

The role of carboxylesterase in species variation of oxime protection against soman.

Oxime protection against soman, a highly toxic anticholinesterase agent, was examined in mice and guinea pigs. The maximal protection produced by the oximes PAM and HI-6 varied as much as 6-fold between these species. Since endogenous carboxylesterase (CaE) is known to be an important determinant of species variation in soman toxicity, the protection of PAM and HI-6 against soman was also measured in animals whose endogenous CaE was inhibited with cresylbenzodioxaphosphorin oxide. In CaE-inhibited animals the soman LD50 values were similar in unprotected mice and guinea pigs (10.2 vs. 12.2 micrograms/kg) and oxime-protected mice and guinea pigs (38.1 vs. 40.3 micrograms/kg for PAM; 159 vs. 151 micrograms/kg for HI-6). The levels of oxime protection observed in CaE-inhibited animals agreed with previous experiments in other species that have no endogenous plasma CaE. The 4-5 times greater in vivo protection against soman of HI-6 vs. PAM in CaE-inhibited animals correlated with in vitro experiments in which HI-6 produced 3-5 times more oxime reactivation of soman-inhibited AChE than PAM.

Enzymes as pretreatment drugs for organophosphate toxicity.

We have successfully demonstrated that exogenously administered acetyl- or butyrylcholinesterase (AChE, BChE respectively) will sequester organophosphates (OPs) before they reach their physiological targets. In addition, a third enzyme, endogenous carboxylesterase is known to be capable of scavenging OPs. In these studies, we have administered AChE and BChE to three different species of animals (mice, marmosets and monkeys) which were challenged with three different OPs (VX, MEPQ and soman). Results obtained from these systematic studies demonstrate that: (a) a quantitative linear correlation exists between blood AChE levels and the protection afforded by exogenously administered ChEs in animals challenged with OP, (b) approximately one mole of either AChE or BChE sequesters one mole of OP, (c) such prophylactic measures are sufficient to protect animals against OPs without the administration of any supportive drugs. Thus the OP dose, the blood-level of esterase, the ratio of the circulating enzyme to OP challenge, and the rate of reaction between them determine the overall efficacy of an enzyme as a pretreatment drug. The biochemical mechanism underlying the sequestration of various OPs by the use of exogenously administered scavenging esterases is the same in all species of animals studied. Therefore, the extrapolation of the results obtained by the use of ChE prophylaxis in animals to humans should be more reliable and effective than extrapolating the results from currently used multidrug antidotal modalities.

Mutant acetylcholinesterases as potential detoxification agents for organophosphate poisoning.

It has been demonstrated that cholinesterases (ChEs) are an effective mode of pretreatment to prevent organophosphate (OP) toxicity in mice and rhesus monkeys. The efficacy of ChE as a bioscavenger of OP can be enhanced by combining enzyme pretreatment with oxime reactivation, since the scavenging capacity extends beyond a stoichiometric ratio of ChE to OP. Aging has proven to be a major barrier to achieving oxime reactivation of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibited by the more potent OPs. To further increase the stoichiometry of OP to ChE required, we have sought AChE mutants that are more easily reactivated than wild-type enzyme. Substitution of glutamine for glutamate (E199) located at the amino-terminal to the active-site serine (S200) in Torpedo AChE generated an enzyme largely resistant to aging. Here we report the effect of the corresponding mutation on the rate of inhibition, reactivation by 1-(2-hydroxyiminomethyl-1-pyridinium)-1(4-carboxyaminopyridinium)- dimethyl ether hydrochloride (HI-6), and aging of mouse AChE inhibited by C(+)P(-)- and C(-)P(-)-epimers of soman. The E202 to Q mutation decreased the affinity of soman for AChE, slowed the reactivation of soman-inhibited AChE by HI-6, and decreased the aging of mutant AChE. These effects were more pronounced with C(-)P(-)-soman than with C(+)P(-)-soman. In vitro detoxification of soman and sarin by wild-type and E202Q AChE in the presence of 2 mM HI-6 showed that, E202Q AChE was 2-3 times more effective in detoxifying soman and sarin than wild-type AChE. These studies show that these recombinant DNA-derived AChEs are a great improvement over wild-type AChE as bioscavengers. They can be used to develop effective methods for the safe disposal of stored OP nerve agents and potential candidates for pre- or post-exposure treatment for OP toxicity.

Hepatic subcellular localization of cresylbenzodioxaphosphorin oxide (CBDP)-sensitive soman binding sites.

The toxicity of the organophosphorus poison soman (pinacolylmethylphosphonofluoridate) is attributable to its irreversible inhibition of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. In addition, soman binds irreversibly to a number of noncholinesterase tissue binding sites which appear to be its major means of in vivo detoxification. This study was conducted to determine the hepatic subcellular localization of these sites. Subcellular fractions of liver from male Sprague-Dawley rats (200-250 g) were prepared by differential and isopycnic density gradient centrifugation. The binding of [14C]soman to these subcellular fractions was determined in the presence and absence of cresylbenzodioxaphosphorin oxide (CBDP), a compound that binds irreversibly to the noncholinesterase soman binding sites. Crude fractionation of liver homogenates into nuclear, mitochondrial, microsomal, and soluble fractions revealed that 78% of the total CBDP-sensitive binding activity was localized in the nuclear and microsomal fractions. Further purification of these fractions indicated that all of the homogenate binding activity could be accounted for in the purified microsomal fraction. When purified liver microsomes were solubilized and fractionated on linear sucrose gradients, 90% of the CBDP-sensitive soman binding activity cosedimented with carboxylesterase activity which suggests that these binding sites are carboxylesterase.

Amplification of the effectiveness of acetylcholinesterase for detoxification of organophosphorus compounds by bis-quaternary oximes.

Pretreatment of rhesus monkeys with fetal bovine serum acetylcholinesterase (FBS AChE) provides complete protection against 5 LD50 of organophosphate (OP) without any signs of toxicity or performance decrements as measured by serial probe recognition tests or primate equilibrium platform performance (Maxwell et al., Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 115: 44-49, 1992; Wolfe et al., Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 117: 189-193, 1992). Although such use of enzyme as a single pretreatment drug for OP toxicity is sufficient to provide complete protection, a relatively large (stoichiometric) amount of enzyme was required in vivo to neutralize OP. To improve the efficacy of cholinesterases as pretreatment drugs, we have developed an approach in which the catalytic activity of OP-inhibited FBS AChE was rapidly and continuously restored, thus detoxifying the OP and minimizing enzyme aging by having sufficient amounts of appropriate oxime present. The efficacy of FBS AChE to detoxify several OPs was amplified by addition of bis-quaternary oximes, particularly 1-(2-hydroxyiminomethyl-1-pyridinium)-1-(4-carboxyaminopyridinium) -dimethyl ether hydrochloride (HI-6). When mice were pretreated with sufficient amounts of FBS AChE and HI-6 and challenged with repeated doses of O-isopropyl methylphosphonofluridate (sarin), the OP was continuously detoxified so long as the molar concentration of the sarin dose was less than the molar concentration of AChE in circulation. The in vitro experiments showed that the stoichiometry of sarin:FBS AChE was higher than 3200:1 and in vivo stoichiometry with mice was as high as 57:1. Addition of HI-6 to FBS AChE as a pretreatment drug amplified the efficacy of enzyme as a scavenger of nerve agents.

Effects of repeated injection of sublethal doses of soman on behavior and on brain acetylcholine and choline concentrations in the rat.

The effects of repeated exposure to a sublethal dose (60 micrograms/kg; 0.4 LD50) of soman on brain regional acetylcholine (ACh) and choline (Ch) levels, spinal cord cholinesterase (ChE) activity and on water consumption, body weight and gross behavioral changes were examined. Male rats were dosed once a week or three times a week and at 24 h after 2, 4 or 6 weeks of dosing, selected brain tissues and behavior were examined. During the 6-week period, there was no difference between control and soman-dosed rats in water consumption or body weight under either treatment regimen. The animals treated once a week adapted to this exposure regimen well. They exhibited no change in the levels of ACh or Ch in any of the brain areas when examined at the end of 2, 4 or 6 weeks, nor did they show any obvious signs of poisoning. The total ChE activity fluctuated between 70 and 100% of control. When treated three times a week, however, survivors (90%) of the soman-treated rats developed signs that progressed in severity to a hyper-reactivity syndrome which consisted of an exaggerated reaction to mild tactile stimuli. Brain ACh levels did not change and ChE activity showed inhibition of 40, 58 and 75% when measured at 2, 4 and 6 weeks, respectively. At the end of 6 weeks, the levels of Ch, except in the striatum, were significantly elevated in brainstem, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, midbrain, and cerebellum (52%, 147%, 68%, 46%, and 91%, respectively), indicating that Ch metabolism in neuronal membranes may be altered following more frequent low-dose soman exposures.

Contribution of direct actions of the oxime HI-6 in reversing soman-induced muscle weakness in the rat diaphragm.

The actions of the bispyridinium oxime HI-6 ([[[(4-aminocarbonyl)pyridino]-methoxy]methyl]-2- [(hydroxyimino)methyl]-pyridinium dichloride) were investigated in vitro on rat phrenic nerve-hemidiaphragm preparations. Isometric twitch and tetanic tensions were elicited at 37 degrees C with supramaximal nerve stimulation at frequencies of 20 and 50 Hz. To approximate normal respiration patterns, trials consisting of 30 successive 0.55 s trains were alternated with 1.25 s rest periods. Under control conditions, the above stimulation pattern generated tensions that were well maintained at both frequencies. In contrast, a marked depression of muscle tension was observed in diaphragms removed from rats administered 339 micrograms/kg soman (3 LD50) and tested in vitro. Addition of HI-6, 4 h after soman exposure, led to a nearly complete recovery of muscle tension at 20 Hz. At 50 Hz, muscle tensions still declined especially when trains were elicited at 1.25 and 3 s intervals. The recovery by HI-6 observed in this study appears to be mediated by mechanisms unrelated to acetylcholinesterase reactivation since no increase of enzymatic activity was detected and the effect was reversed by a brief washout in oxime-free physiological solution. The results suggest that the direct action of HI-6 may play a role in restoring soman-induced diaphragmatic failure but this effect would be significant primarily under low use conditions.

Kinetic properties of soluble and membrane-bound acetylcholinesterase from electric eel.

Using electric eel acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which was either membrane-bound (AChEm) or solubilized (AChEs), similar kinetics were seen in the absence of inhibitor or in the presence of edrophonium, trimethylammonium ion or paraoxon. Thus, both forms of the enzyme appear to behave similarly toward various inhibitors. However, in the presence of a probe sensitive to allosteric effects or changes in membrane fluidity, the two forms exhibit altered behavior. In the presence of F-, the relative rate of substrate hydrolysis by AChEm was reduced more rapidly than with AChEs, whether or not paraoxon was present. When inhibition by paraoxon (10(-7)-10(-4) M) was studied in the presence of F-, AChEs had a Hill coefficient of 1.0, whereas with AChEm the Hill coefficient changed from 0.8 to 1.5.

Improvements in scavenger protection against organophosphorus agents by modification of cholinesterases.

The ability of stoichiometric scavengers, such as ChEs, to protect against a variety of OP agents has been demonstrated in several in vivo models. To improve the detoxification of OP agents by ChEs, several approaches have been recently used to increase the stoichiometry, stability, and in vivo effectiveness of ChEs as OP scavengers. For example, the in vitro stoichiometric neutralization of sarin by AChE was increased from 1:1 to 3200:1 by the addition of the oxime HI-6, while the in vivo stoichiometry was increased to 57:1 in mice by HI-6. The aging rate of soman-inhibited mouse AChE was reduced 12-fold in a mutant AChE (E202Q) which resulted in a two-fold increase in oxime-assisted detoxification of soman. To improve the duration of scavenger protection provided by ChEs, the mean residence times of five tissue-derived and two recombinant ChEs injected i.v. in mice were compared with their oligosaccharide profiles. The mean residence times of these ChEs were found to increase with molecular weight and with the levels of oligosaccharide sialylation. The stability of AChE in non-physiological environments was improved by immobilizing it in a polyurethane foam matrix that allowed AChE to retain enzymatic activity at high temperature (75 degrees C) where soluble enzyme denatured. These developments in scavenger technology have improved the in vivo protection provided by OP scavengers and extended their applicability to provide external decontamination of chemical agents and pesticides.

Catalytic antibodies hydrolysing organophosphorus esters.

Transition state stabilization is considered one means by which enzymes reduce free energy of activation. The transition state of phosphonic acid anhydrides acted on by OPA hydrolase is postulated to be pentacoordinate, which ordains either a square pyramid or a trigonal bipyramid structure. The advent of catalytic monoclonal antibodies has provided a system in which these assumptions can be tested. By immunizing mice with the protein conjugate of a trigonal bipyramid transition state analog, we have produced hybridomas secreting monoclonal antibodies which hydrolyze phosphonates. To date, activity has been shown toward pinacolyl methylphosphonofluoridic acid (soman). Preliminary results suggest that the antibody is an IgG2a with kappa light chain character. Our results support the trigonal bipyramidal transition state for this group of enzymes.

Organophosphate skin decontamination using immobilized enzymes.

We previously demonstrated that a combination of cholinesterase (ChE) pre-treatment with an oxime is an effective measure against soman and sarin. We describe here a novel approach for the preparation of covalently linked ChEs which are immobilized to a polyurethane matrix. Such preparation of ChE-sponges enhances the stability and usefulness of the enzymes in non-physiological environments. The ChE-sponges, which can be molded to any form, can effectively be used to remove and decontaminate organophosphates (OPs) from surfaces, biological (skin or wounds) or otherwise (clothing or sensitive medical equipment), or the environment. The ChE-sponges retained their catalytic activity under conditions of temperature, time, and drying where the native soluble enzyme would rapidly denature, and can be reused in conjunction with oximes many times. The ChE-sponge in the presence of oxime repeatedly detoxified OPs such as DFP or MEPQ. These developments in ChE technology have extended the applicability of OP scavengers from in vivo protection, to a variety of external detoxification and decontamination schemes. In addition to treatment of OP-contaminated soldiers, the ChE-sponge could protect medical personnel from secondary contamination while attending chemical casualties, and civilians exposed to pesticides or highly toxic nerve agents such as sarin.

Cholinesterases as scavengers for organophosphorus compounds: protection of primate performance against soman toxicity.

The present treatment for poisoning by organophosphates consists of multiple drugs such as carbamates, antimuscarinics, and reactivators in pre- and post-exposure modalities. Recently an anticonvulsant, diazapam, has been included as a post-exposure drug to reduce convulsions and increase survival. Most regimens are effective in preventing lethality from organophosphate exposure but do not prevent toxic effects and incapacitation observed in animals and likely to occur in humans. Use of enzymes such as cholinesterases as pretreatment drugs for sequestration of highly toxic organophosphate anticholinesterases and alleviation of side effects and performance decrements was successful in animals, including non-human primates. Pretreatment of rhesus monkeys with fetal bovine serum acetylcholinesterase protected them against lethal effects of soman (up to 5 LD50) and prevented signs of OP toxicity. Monkeys pretreated with fetal bovine serum acetylcholinesterase were devoid of behavioral incapacitation after soman exposure, as measured by serial probe recognition or primate equilibrium platform performance tasks. Use of acetylcholinesterase as a single pretreatment drug provided greater protection against both lethal and behavioral effects of potent organophosphates than current multicomponent drug treatments that prevent neither signs of toxicity nor behavioral deficits. Although use of cholinesterases as single pretreatment drugs provided complete protection, its use for humans may be limited, since large quantities will be required, due to the approximately 1:1 stoichiometry between organophosphate and enzyme. Bisquaternary oximes, particularly HI-6, have been shown to reactivate organophosphate-inhibited acetylcholinesterase at a rapid rate. We explored the possibility that enzyme could be continually reactivated in animals pretreated with fetal bovine serum acetylcholinesterase, followed by an appropriate dose of reactivator, and challenged with repeated doses of sarin. In in vitro experiments, stoichiometry greater than 1:400 for enzyme:sarin was achieved; in vivo stoichiometry in mice was 1:65. Pretreatment of mice with fetal bovine serum acetylcholinesterase and HI-6 amplified the effectiveness of exogenous enzyme as a scavenger for organophosphate.

The effect of carboxylesterase inhibition on interspecies differences in soman toxicity.

Subcutaneous administration of 2 mg/kg cresylbenzodioxaphosphorin oxide (CBDP) produced complete inhibition of carboxylesterase activity in plasma and lung of mice, rats, guinea pigs and rabbits, without inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity in either brain or diaphragm. This CBDP treatment also reduced the subcutaneous soman LD50 in these species by 48-90% in comparison to the soman LD50 in control animals. The interspecies differences in the soman LD50 values that were seen in control animals were absent in CBDP-treated animals. The soman LD50 values in control animals were 125 micrograms/kg (mouse), 116 micrograms/kg (rat), 32.3 micrograms/kg (guinea pig) and 22.8 micrograms/kg (rabbit), whereas the soman LD50 values in CBDP-treated animals from these species were clustered in a narrow dose range (11.8-15.6 micrograms/kg) and were not significantly different. This suggests that the amount of CBDP-sensitive carboxylesterase available for detoxification of soman in each species may be an important determinant of interspecies differences in soman toxicity.

A pharmacodynamic model for soman in the rat.

A pharmacodynamic model for inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) by soman was developed to describe the intertissue differences in AChE inhibition, the dose response of AChE to inhibition by soman, and the effect of differences in xenobiotic metabolism on soman toxicity. Based on the principles of physiological pharmacokinetics, this pharmacodynamic model consisted of a set of mass balance equations that included parameters for blood flow, tissue volumes, soman metabolism, tissue/plasma partition coefficients, initial AChE levels, and the rate constant for AChE inhibition. Sensitivity analysis of the model revealed that variation of the soman metabolism parameter in plasma was the most important determinant of variation in the inhibition of brain AChE by soman.

Studies of the amplification of carbaryl toxicity by various oximes.

The administration of 2-pyridine aldoxime methyl chloride (2-PAM Cl) is a standard part of the regimen for treatment of human overexposure to many organophosphorus pesticides and nerve agents. However, some literature references indicate that poisoning by carbaryl (1-naphthyl N-methyl carbamate), an insecticide in everyday use, is aggravated by the administration of 2-PAM Cl. This effect has been reported in the mouse, rat, dog and man. We have found that the inhibition of both eel acetylcholinesterase (eel AChE, EC 3.1.1.7) and human serum cholinesterase (human BuChE, EC 3.1.1.8) by carbaryl was enhanced by several oximes. Based on 95% confidence limits the rank order of potentiation with eel AChE was TMB-4 = Toxogonin > HS-6 = HI-6 > 2-PAM Cl. By the same criterion, the rank order of potentiation with human BuChE was TMB-4 > Toxogonin > HS-6 = 2-PAM Cl. Carbaryl-challenged mice also reflected a potentiation since TMB-4 exacerbated the toxicity more than 2-PAM Cl. Our hypothesis is that certain oximes act as allosteric effectors of cholinesterases in carbaryl poisoning, resulting in enhanced inhibition rates and potentiation of carbaryl toxicity.

Cresylbenzodioxaphosphorin oxide pretreatment alters soman-induced toxicity and inhibition of tissue cholinesterase activity of the rat.

The toxicity of soman was investigated in the rat with and without pretreatment with cresylbenzodioxaphosphorin oxide (CBDP). Without pretreatment, the 24-h LD50 for soman was 118.2 micrograms/kg s.c., and soman inhibited carboxylesterase (CaE) activity in plasma (ED50 of 55 micrograms/kg) and cholinesterase (ChE) activity in brain regions (ED50 values of 65-105 micrograms/kg) in a dose-related manner. With pretreatment, the 24-h LD50 for soman was reduced by approximately 6-fold and 8-fold (by 1.0 mg/kg and 16.0 mg/kg of CBDP, respectively), and the ED50 values for soman-induced inhibition of ChE activity in brain regions were reduced by approximately 10-fold (by 1.0 mg/kg of CBDP). The dose-dependent severity of soman intoxication varied widely in rats treated with soman alone but not in CBDP-pretreated rats, and the ED50 for the occurrence of signs of soman intoxication was reduced approximately 7-fold following CBDP (1.0 mg/kg) pretreatment. These data support the hypothesis that CBDP pretreatment effectively blocks tissue CaE sites which serve to detoxify soman, thus potentiating both the soman-induced inhibition of ChE in the CNS and the lethality of soman.

Behavioral decrements persist in rhesus monkeys trained on a serial probe recognition task despite protection against soman lethality by butyrylcholinesterase.

Recently, it has been demonstrated that an exogenously administered enzyme such as butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) can prevent death in rhesus monkeys exposed to multiple-lethal doses of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor soman when the enzyme is given prior to soman exposure (3). We report that despite BuChE protecting against soman-induced lethality, behavioral effects are seen in these monkeys which last for at least 6 days as measured by performance on a serial probe recognition (SPR) task. Analyses of the serial position curves showed that performance was lower on the probe trials when the probe items were from the middle of the list than when the probe items were from the beginning or end of the list which were unaffected. BuChE given alone also produced behavioral effects, causing all animals not to respond on the probe trials until 8 h following BuChE administration. Taken together, these findings suggest that the BuChE is not completely binding all of the soman and that a concentration of soman which is capable of causing behavioral effects may be entering the CNS.

A theoretical model of the competition between hydrolase and carboxylesterase in protection against organophosphorus poisoning.

A system of coupled non-linear differential equations describing interactions between organophosphorus compounds (OPs), OP hydrolase, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and carboxylesterase (CaE) in a single compartment was derived incorporating irreversible combination of OP with AChE, hydrolytic breakdown of OP, and irreversible combination of OP with CaE. The equations were then uncoupled, providing non-linear differential equations on AChE, CaE and OP concentrations. One steady state solution of the AChE equation provided theoretical expressions for the amounts of OP hydrolyzed, bound with CaE, and bound with AChE. Assuming that the LD50 of an OP reflects the dose that depletes AChE to a 'minimal essential' level and that a single compartment model is applicable in vivo, the steady state solution becomes an equation predicting the LD50 from rate constants, initial enzyme levels, and the allowable AChE depletion. Normalization by initial AChE concentration produced a dimensionless relationship describing an 'OP toxicity surface' that clearly demonstrates regions where hydrolysis and CaE offer protection against OP poisoning. The surface can be used to theoretically predict an LD50 given only kinetic rate constants and effective whole-body AChE and CaE levels. Predictions of LD50s of seven OPs in rats were compared with published data. The relationship was found to adequately predict published LD50s spanning 5 orders of magnitude. The OP toxicity surface relationship provides a conceptual tool for use in OP toxicity research but should be particularly useful in predicting the relative protective effects of catalytic and stoichiometric scavenger mechanisms for an OP.

Effect of an anticholinesterase compound on the ultrastructure and function of the rat blood-brain barrier: a review and experiment.

Soman, an organophosphorous irreversible inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase, was studied for its effect on the rat blood-brain barrier (BBB) during the first 24 h of intoxication. Young adult male Sprague-Dawley rats, injected with Evans blue-dye and surviving a subsequent single convulsive dose of soman (114 micrograms/kg, 0.9LD50), presented focal and diffuse penetration of dye in areas of brain normally considered protected by the BBB. Invasion was widest during the first hour when signs of excitation, respiratory distress and convulsions peaked and was absent at 24 h. During this time period, cholinesterase inhibition, as measured by enzyme assay, persisted in brain and blood at 10% and 6% of control values respectively. Brains of nonconvulsing animals and animals pretreated with nembutal (45 mg/kg, I.P.) or with diazepam (10 mg/kg, I.P.) were free of extravasated dye. A ranking of dye-breached brain areas suggested that cerebellar and cerebral cortex were most frequently involved while brain stem was rarely stained. Ultrastructural analysis of breached areas with horseradish peroxidase as a tracer molecule, revealed that the probable subcellular mechanism of the induced breach was enhanced vesicular transport, a mechanism similarly described for seizure. Consequences of the breach were emphasized with the detection of significantly elevated levels of an exogenously administered quaternary compound, 3H-hexamethonium. These findings present additional evidence that an anticholinesterase-induced breach of the rat blood-brain barrier is convulsive dependent, demonstrates BBB mechanisms similar to that of seizure, and can allow CNS penetration of blood-borne drugs and circulatory proteins that normally would be slowed or excluded by an intact BBB.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)