RESUMO
Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) are effective in treating COVID-19, but the mechanism of immune protection is not fully understood. Here, we applied live bioluminescence imaging (BLI) to monitor the real-time effects of NAb treatment during prophylaxis and therapy of K18-hACE2 mice intranasally infected with SARS-CoV-2-nanoluciferase. Real-time imaging revealed that the virus spread sequentially from the nasal cavity to the lungs in mice and thereafter systemically to various organs including the brain, culminating in death. Highly potent NAbs from a COVID-19 convalescent subject prevented, and also effectively resolved, established infection when administered within three days. In addition to direct neutralization, depletion studies indicated that Fc effector interactions of NAbs with monocytes, neutrophils, and natural killer cells were required to effectively dampen inflammatory responses and limit immunopathology. Our study highlights that both Fab and Fc effector functions of NAbs are essential for optimal in vivo efficacy against SARS-CoV-2.
Assuntos
Anticorpos Neutralizantes/metabolismo , Anticorpos Antivirais/metabolismo , Encéfalo/patologia , COVID-19/imunologia , Pulmão/patologia , SARS-CoV-2/fisiologia , Testículo/patologia , Enzima de Conversão de Angiotensina 2/genética , Animais , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/genética , Anticorpos Antivirais/genética , Encéfalo/virologia , COVID-19/terapia , Células Cultivadas , Modelos Animais de Doenças , Humanos , Fragmentos Fc das Imunoglobulinas/genética , Luciferases/genética , Medições Luminescentes , Pulmão/virologia , Masculino , Camundongos , Camundongos Transgênicos , Testículo/virologiaRESUMO
CD4-mimetics (CD4mcs) are small molecule compounds that mimic the interaction of the CD4 receptor with HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env). Env from primary viruses normally samples a "closed" conformation that occludes epitopes recognized by CD4-induced (CD4i) non-neutralizing antibodies (nnAbs). CD4mcs induce conformational changes on Env resulting in the exposure of these otherwise inaccessible epitopes. Here, we evaluated the capacity of plasma from a cohort of 50 people living with HIV to recognize HIV-1-infected cells and eliminate them by antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) in the presence of a potent indoline CD4mc. We observed a marked heterogeneity among plasma samples. By measuring the levels of different families of CD4i Abs, we found that the levels of anti-cluster A, anti-coreceptor binding site, and anti-gp41 cluster I antibodies are responsible for plasma-mediated ADCC in the presence of CD4mc. IMPORTANCE: There are several reasons that make it difficult to target the HIV reservoir. One of them is the capacity of infected cells to prevent the recognition of HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) by commonly elicited antibodies in people living with HIV. Small CD4-mimetic compounds expose otherwise occluded Env epitopes, thus enabling their recognition by non-neutralizing antibodies (nnAbs). A better understanding of the contribution of these antibodies to eliminate infected cells in the presence of CD4mc could lead to the development of therapeutic cure strategies.
RESUMO
The majority of naturally elicited antibodies against the HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) are non-neutralizing (nnAbs) because they are unable to recognize the Env trimer in its native "closed" conformation. Nevertheless, it has been shown that nnAbs have the potential to eliminate HIV-1-infected cells by antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) provided that Env is present on the cell surface in its "open" conformation. This is because most nnAbs recognize epitopes that become accessible only after Env interaction with CD4 and the exposure of epitopes that are normally occluded in the closed trimer. HIV-1 limits this vulnerability by downregulating CD4 from the surface of infected cells, thus preventing a premature encounter of Env with CD4. Small CD4-mimetics (CD4mc) sensitize HIV-1-infected cells to ADCC by opening the Env glycoprotein and exposing CD4-induced (CD4i) epitopes. There are two families of CD4i nnAbs, termed anti-cluster A and anti-CoRBS Abs, which are known to mediate ADCC in the presence of CD4mc. Here, we performed Fab competition experiments and found that anti-gp41 cluster I antibodies comprise a major fraction of the plasma ADCC activity in people living with HIV (PLWH). Moreover, addition of gp41 cluster I antibodies to cluster A and CoRBS antibodies greatly enhanced ADCC-mediated cell killing in the presence of a potent indoline CD4mc, CJF-III-288. This cocktail outperformed broadly neutralizing antibodies and even showed activity against HIV-1-infected monocyte-derived macrophages. Thus, combining CD4i antibodies with different specificities achieves maximal ADCC activity, which may be of utility in HIV cure strategies.IMPORTANCEThe elimination of HIV-1-infected cells remains an important medical goal. Although current antiretroviral therapy decreases viral loads below detection levels, it does not eliminate latently infected cells that form the viral reservoir. Here, we developed a cocktail of non-neutralizing antibodies targeting highly conserved Env regions and combined it with a potent indoline CD4mc. This combination exhibited potent ADCC activity against HIV-1-infected primary CD4 + T cells as well as monocyte-derived macrophages, suggesting its potential utility in decreasing the size of the viral reservoir.
RESUMO
The HIV-1 Nef and Vpu accessory proteins are known to protect infected cells from antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) responses by limiting exposure of CD4-induced (CD4i) envelope (Env) epitopes at the cell surface. Although both proteins target the host receptor CD4 for degradation, the extent of their functional redundancy is unknown. Here, we developed an intracellular staining technique that permits the intracellular detection of both Nef and Vpu in primary CD4+ T cells by flow cytometry. Using this method, we show that the combined expression of Nef and Vpu predicts the susceptibility of HIV-1-infected primary CD4+ T cells to ADCC by HIV+ plasma. We also show that Vpu cannot compensate for the absence of Nef, thus providing an explanation for why some infectious molecular clones that carry a LucR reporter gene upstream of Nef render infected cells more susceptible to ADCC responses. Our method thus represents a new tool to dissect the biological activity of Nef and Vpu in the context of other host and viral proteins within single infected CD4+ T cells. IMPORTANCE HIV-1 Nef and Vpu exert several biological functions that are important for viral immune evasion, release, and replication. Here, we developed a new method allowing simultaneous detection of these accessory proteins in their native form together with some of their cellular substrates. This allowed us to show that Vpu cannot compensate for the lack of a functional Nef, which has implications for studies that use Nef-defective viruses to study ADCC responses.
Assuntos
Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos , Infecções por HIV , HIV-1 , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias , Proteínas Viroporinas , Produtos do Gene nef do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana , Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos/fisiologia , Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/virologia , Citometria de Fluxo , Infecções por HIV/fisiopatologia , HIV-1/genética , HIV-1/metabolismo , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/genética , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/isolamento & purificação , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismo , Humanos , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/genética , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/isolamento & purificação , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/metabolismo , Proteínas Viroporinas/genética , Proteínas Viroporinas/isolamento & purificação , Proteínas Viroporinas/metabolismo , Produtos do Gene nef do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/genética , Produtos do Gene nef do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/isolamento & purificação , Produtos do Gene nef do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismoRESUMO
The activity of broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) targeting HIV-1 depends on pleiotropic functions, including viral neutralization and the elimination of HIV-1-infected cells. Several in vivo studies have suggested that passive administration of bNAbs represents a valuable strategy for the prevention or treatment of HIV-1. In addition, different strategies are currently being tested to scale up the production of bNAbs to obtain the large quantities of antibodies required for clinical trials. Production of antibodies in plants permits low-cost and large-scale production of valuable therapeutics; furthermore, pertinent to this work, it also includes an advanced glycoengineering platform. In this study, we used Nicotiana benthamiana to produce different Fc-glycovariants of a potent bNAb, PGT121, with near-homogeneous profiles and evaluated their antiviral activities. Structural analyses identified a close similarity in overall structure and glycosylation patterns of Fc regions for these plant-derived Abs and mammalian cell-derived Abs. When tested for Fc-effector activities, afucosylated PGT121 showed significantly enhanced FcγRIIIa interaction and antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) against primary HIV-1-infected cells, both in vitro and ex vivo. However, the overall galactosylation profiles of plant PGT121 did not affect ADCC activities against infected primary CD4+ T cells. Our results suggest that the abrogation of the Fc N-linked glycan fucosylation of PGT121 is a worthwhile strategy to boost its Fc-effector functionality. IMPORTANCE PGT121 is a highly potent bNAb and its antiviral activities for HIV-1 prevention and therapy are currently being evaluated in clinical trials. The importance of its Fc-effector functions in clearing HIV-1-infected cells is also under investigation. Our results highlight enhanced Fc-effector activities of afucosylated PGT121 MAbs that could be important in a therapeutic context to accelerate infected cell clearance and slow disease progression. Future studies to evaluate the potential of plant-produced afucosylated PGT121 in controlling HIV-1 replication in vivo are warranted.
Assuntos
Anticorpos Monoclonais/farmacologia , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/administração & dosagem , Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos/imunologia , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/administração & dosagem , Infecções por HIV/prevenção & controle , HIV-1/imunologia , Polissacarídeos/imunologia , Anticorpos Monoclonais/imunologia , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/imunologia , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/imunologia , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/virologia , Glicosilação , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/virologia , Humanos , Nicotiana/imunologia , Nicotiana/virologiaRESUMO
CD4 downregulation on infected cells is a highly conserved function of primate lentiviruses. It has been shown to positively impact viral replication by a variety of mechanisms, including enhanced viral release and infectivity, decrease of cell reinfection, and protection from antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), which is often mediated by antibodies that require CD4 to change envelope (Env) conformation. Here, we report that incorporation of CD4 into HIV-1 viral particles affects Env conformation resulting in the exposure of occluded epitopes recognized by CD4-induced antibodies. This translates into enhanced neutralization susceptibility by these otherwise nonneutralizing antibodies but is prevented by the HIV-1 Nef accessory protein. Altogether, these findings suggest that another functional consequence of Nef-mediated CD4 downregulation is the protection of viral particles from neutralization by commonly elicited CD4-induced antibodies.IMPORTANCE It has been well established that Env-CD4 complexes expose epitopes recognized by commonly elicited CD4-induced antibodies at the surface of HIV-1-infected cells, rendering them vulnerable to ADCC responses. Here, we show that CD4 incorporation has a profound impact on Env conformation at the surface of viral particles. Incorporated CD4 exposes CD4-induced epitopes on Env, rendering HIV-1 susceptible to neutralization by otherwise nonneutralizing antibodies.
Assuntos
Antígenos CD4/imunologia , HIV-1/imunologia , Proteínas do Envelope Viral/imunologia , Animais , Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos/imunologia , Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/imunologia , Linhagem Celular , Cães , Epitopos/imunologia , Células HEK293 , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/metabolismo , Infecções por HIV/virologia , Soropositividade para HIV , HIV-1/metabolismo , Humanos , Ligação Proteica/imunologia , Vírion/metabolismo , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologiaRESUMO
To minimize immune responses against infected cells, HIV-1 limits the surface expression of its envelope glycoprotein (Env). Here, we demonstrate that this mechanism is specific for the Env conformation and affects the efficiency of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Using flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, we show that broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) targeting the "closed" conformation of Env induce its internalization from the surface. In contrast, non-neutralizing antibodies (nNAbs) are displayed on the cell surface for prolonged period of times. The bNAb-induced Env internalization can be decreased by blocking dynamin function, which translates into higher susceptibilities of infected cells to ADCC. Our results suggest that antibody-mediated Env internalization is a mechanism used by HIV-1 to evade immune responses against the "closed" conformation of Env expressed on HIV-1-infected cells.IMPORTANCE HIV-1 has evolved to acquire several strategies to limit the exposure of its envelope glycoproteins (Env) on the surface of infected cells. In this study, we show that antibody-induced Env internalization is conformation specific and reduces the susceptibility of infected cells to antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Thus, a better understanding of this mechanism might help develop antibodies with improved capacities to mediate ADCC.
Assuntos
Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos/imunologia , HIV-1/imunologia , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologia , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/imunologia , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/imunologia , Regulação Viral da Expressão Gênica/genética , Células HEK293 , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , Soropositividade para HIV , HIV-1/metabolismo , Humanos , Conformação Molecular , Internalização do Vírus , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismoRESUMO
HIV-1 conceals epitopes of its envelope glycoproteins (Env) recognized by antibody (Ab)-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC)-mediating antibodies. These Abs, including anti-coreceptor binding site (CoRBS) and anti-cluster A antibodies, preferentially recognize Env in its "open" conformation. The binding of anti-CoRBS Abs has been shown to induce conformational changes that further open Env, allowing interaction of anti-cluster A antibodies. We explored the possibility that CoRBS Abs synergize with anti-cluster A Abs to engage Fc-gamma receptors to mediate ADCC. We found that binding of anti-CoRBS and anti-cluster A Abs to the same gp120 is required for interaction with soluble dimeric FcγRIIIa in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). We also found that Fc regions of both Abs are required to optimally engage FcγRIIIa and mediate robust ADCC. Taken together, our results indicate that these two families of Abs act together in a sequential and synergistic fashion to promote FcγRIIIa engagement and ADCC.IMPORTANCE The "open" CD4-bound conformation of HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins is the primary target of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC)-mediating antibodies present in HIV-positive (HIV+) sera, such as anti-coreceptor binding site and anti-cluster A antibodies. Here we report that the binding of these two families of antibodies is required to engage FcγRIIIa and mediate ADCC.
Assuntos
Epitopos/imunologia , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/prevenção & controle , HIV-1/imunologia , Receptores de IgG/metabolismo , Linfócitos T/imunologia , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologia , Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos , Sítios de Ligação , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/metabolismo , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/virologia , Humanos , Ligação Proteica , Receptores de IgG/imunologia , Proteínas Recombinantes/imunologiaRESUMO
The HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) trimer mediates virus entry into cells. The "closed" conformation of Env is resistant to nonneutralizing antibodies (nnAbs). These antibodies mostly recognize occluded epitopes that can be exposed upon binding of CD4 or small-molecule CD4 mimetics (CD4mc). Here, we describe a new family of small molecules that expose Env to nnAbs and sensitize infected cells to antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). These compounds have a limited capacity to inhibit virus infection directly but are able to sensitize viral particles to neutralization by otherwise nonneutralizing antibodies. Structural analysis shows that some analogs of this family of CD4mc engage the gp120 Phe43 cavity by contacting the highly conserved D368 residue, making them attractive scaffolds for drug development.IMPORTANCE HIV-1 has evolved multiple strategies to avoid humoral responses. One efficient mechanism is to keep its envelope glycoprotein (Env) in its "closed" conformation. Here, we report on a new family of small molecules that are able to "open up" Env, thus exposing vulnerable epitopes. This new family of molecules binds in the Phe43 cavity and contacts the highly conserved D368 residue. The structural and biological attributes of molecules of this family make them good candidates for drug development.
Assuntos
Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos/imunologia , Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/virologia , HIV-1/imunologia , Anticorpos Neutralizantes , Ácido Aspártico , Antígenos CD4/química , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/virologia , Epitopos/imunologia , Células HEK293 , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/química , Humanos , Modelos Moleculares , Ligação Proteica , Conformação Proteica , VírionRESUMO
HIV-1-infected cells expressing envelope glycoproteins (Env) in the CD4-bound conformation on their surfaces are targeted by antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) mediated by CD4-induced (CD4i) antibodies and sera from HIV-1-infected individuals (HIV+ sera). By downregulating the surface expression of CD4, Nef prevents Env-CD4 interaction, thus protecting HIV-1-infected cells from ADCC. HIV-1 infectious molecular clones (IMCs) are widely used to measure ADCC. In order to facilitate the identification of infected cells and high-throughput ADCC analysis, reporter genes (e.g., the Renilla luciferase [LucR] gene) are often introduced into IMC constructs. We evaluated the susceptibility of HIV-1-infected CD4+ T lymphocytes to ADCC using a panel of parental IMCs and derivatives that expressed the LucR reporter gene, utilizing different molecular strategies, including one specifically designed to retain Nef expression. We found that in some of these constructs, Nef expression in CD4+ T cells was suboptimal, and consequently, CD4 downregulation was incomplete. CD4 molecules remaining on the cell surface resulted in the exposure of ADCC-mediating CD4i epitopes on Env and a dramatic increase in the susceptibility of the infected cells to ADCC. Strikingly, protection from ADCC was observed when cells were infected with the parental IMC, which exhibited strong CD4 downregulation. This discrepancy between the parental and Nef-impaired viruses was independent of the strains of Env expressed, but rather, it was correlated with the levels of CD4 surface expression. Overall, our results indicate that caution should be taken when selecting IMCs for ADCC measurements and that CD4 downregulation needs to be carefully monitored when drawing conclusions about the nature and magnitude of ADCC.IMPORTANCE In-depth understanding of the susceptibility of HIV-1-infected cells to ADCC might help establish correlates of vaccine protection and guide the development of HIV-1 vaccine strategies. Different ADCC assays have been developed, including those using infectious molecular clones (IMCs) carrying a LucR reporter gene that greatly facilitates large-scale quantitative analysis. We previously reported different molecular strategies for introducing LucR while maintaining Nef expression and function and, consequently, CD4 surface downregulation. Here, we demonstrate that utilizing IMCs that exhibit impaired Nef expression can have undesirable consequences due to incomplete CD4 downregulation. CD4 molecules remaining on the cell surface resulted in the exposure of ADCC-mediating CD4i epitopes on Env and a dramatic increase in the susceptibility of the infected cells to ADCC. Overall, our results indicate that CD4 downregulation needs to be carefully monitored when drawing conclusions about the nature and magnitude of ADCC.
Assuntos
Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos/imunologia , Antígenos CD4/antagonistas & inibidores , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , HIV-1/imunologia , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/química , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologia , Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/imunologia , Regulação para Baixo , Epitopos/imunologia , Células HEK293 , Infecções por HIV/virologia , Humanos , Luciferases de Renilla/metabolismo , Ligação Proteica , Conformação Proteica , Produtos do Gene nef do Vírus da Imunodeficiência HumanaRESUMO
The entry of human immunodeficiency virus into host cells is mediated by the envelope glycoprotein (Env) trimeric spike, which consists of three exterior gp120 subunits and three transmembrane gp41 subunits. The trimeric Env undergoes extensive conformational rearrangement upon interaction with the CD4 receptor, transitioning from the unliganded, "closed" State 1 to more-open downstream State 2 and State 3 conformations. Changes in "restraining" amino acid residues, such as leucine 193 and isoleucine 423, destabilize State 1 Env, which then assumes entry-competent, downstream conformations. The introduction of an artificial disulfide bond linking the gp120 and gp41 subunits (SOS) in combination with the I559P (IP) change has allowed structural characterization of soluble gp140 (sgp140) trimers. The conformation of these SOSIP-stabilized sgp140 trimers has been suggested to represent the closed native State 1 conformation. Here we compare the impact on the membrane Env conformation of the SOSIP changes with that of the well-characterized changes (L193R and I423A) that shift Env to downstream States 2 and 3. The results presented here suggest that the SOSIP changes stabilize Env in a conformation that differs from State 1 but also from the downstream Env conformations stabilized by L193R or I423A.IMPORTANCE The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope glycoprotein (Env) trimer is triggered by receptor binding to mediate the entry of the virus into cells. Most structural studies of Env trimers have utilized truncated soluble gp140 Envs stabilized with the I559P and SOS changes. Here we present evidence indicating that these stabilizing changes have a profound impact on the conformation of Env, moving Env away from the native pretriggered Env conformation. Our studies underscore the need to acquire structural information on the pretriggered Env conformation, which is recognized by most broadly reactive neutralizing antibodies.
Assuntos
Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/metabolismo , Proteína gp41 do Envelope de HIV/metabolismo , Infecções por HIV/metabolismo , HIV-1/fisiologia , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/química , Antígenos CD4/genética , Células HEK293 , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/genética , Proteína gp41 do Envelope de HIV/genética , Infecções por HIV/virologia , Humanos , Mutagênese Sítio-Dirigida , Mutação , Conformação Proteica , Multimerização Proteica , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/genética , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismoRESUMO
Antibodies recognizing conserved CD4-induced (CD4i) epitopes on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Env and able to mediate antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) have been shown to be present in sera from most HIV-1-infected individuals. These antibodies preferentially recognize Env in its CD4-bound conformation. CD4 downregulation by Nef and Vpu dramatically reduces exposure of CD4i HIV-1 Env epitopes and therefore reduce the susceptibility of HIV-1-infected cells to ADCC mediated by HIV-positive (HIV+) sera. Importantly, this mechanism of immune evasion can be circumvented with small-molecule CD4 mimetics (CD4mc) that are able to transition Env into the CD4-bound conformation and sensitize HIV-1-infected cells to ADCC mediated by HIV+ sera. However, HIV-1 developed additional mechanisms to avoid ADCC, including Vpu-mediated BST-2 antagonism, which decreases the overall amount of Env present at the cell surface. Accordingly, BST-2 upregulation in response to alpha interferon (IFN-α) was shown to increase the susceptibility of HIV-1-infected cells to ADCC despite the activity of Vpu. Here we show that BST-2 upregulation by IFN-ß and interleukin-27 (IL-27) also increases the surface expression of Env and thus boosts the ability of CD4mc to sensitize HIV-1-infected cells to ADCC by sera from HIV-1-infected individuals.IMPORTANCE HIV-1 evolved sophisticated strategies to conceal Env epitopes from ADCC-mediating antibodies present in HIV+ sera. Vpu-mediated BST-2 downregulation was shown to decrease ADCC responses by limiting the amount of Env present at the cell surface. This effect of Vpu was shown to be attenuated by IFN-α treatment. Here we show that in addition to IFN-α, IFN-ß and IL-27 also affect Vpu-mediated BST-2 downregulation and greatly enhance ADCC responses against HIV-1-infected cells in the presence of CD4mc. These findings may inform strategies aimed at HIV prevention and eradication.
Assuntos
Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos , Antígenos CD/genética , Antígenos CD4/imunologia , Epitopos/imunologia , HIV-1/imunologia , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/genética , Antígenos CD/metabolismo , Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Proteínas Ligadas por GPI/deficiência , Proteínas Ligadas por GPI/genética , Proteínas Ligadas por GPI/metabolismo , HIV-1/genética , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/genética , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismo , Humanos , Evasão da Resposta Imune , Interferon beta/farmacologia , Interleucinas/farmacologia , Células Jurkat , Mimetismo Molecular , Regulação para Cima , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/genética , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/metabolismo , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologiaRESUMO
Binding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) gp120 exterior envelope glycoprotein to CD4 triggers conformational changes in gp120 that promote its interaction with one of the chemokine receptors, usually CCR5, ultimately leading to gp41-mediated virus-cell membrane fusion and entry. We previously described that topological layers (layer 1, layer 2, and layer 3) in the gp120 inner domain contribute to gp120-trimer association in the unliganded state but also help secure CD4 binding. Relative to layer 1 of HIV-1 gp120, the SIVmac239 gp120 layer 1 plays a more prominent role in maintaining gp120-trimer association but is minimally involved in promoting CD4 binding, which could be explained by the existence of a well-conserved tryptophan at position 375 (Trp 375) in HIV-2/SIVsmm. In this study, we investigated the role of SIV layer 3 in viral entry, cell-to-cell fusion, and CD4 binding. We observed that a network of interactions involving some residues of the ß8-α5 region in SIVmac239 layer 3 may contribute to CD4 binding by helping shape the nearby Phe 43 cavity, which directly contacts CD4. In summary, our results suggest that layer 3 in SIV has a greater impact on CD4 binding than in HIV-1. This work defines lineage-specific differences in layer 3 from HIV-1 and that from SIV. IMPORTANCE: CD4-induced conformational changes in the gp120 inner domain involve rearrangements between three topological layers. While the role of layers 1 to 3 for HIV-1 and layers 1 and 2 for SIV on gp120 transition to the CD4-bound conformation has been reported, the role of SIV layer 3 remains unknown. Here we report that SIV layer 3 has a greater impact on CD4 binding than does layer 3 in HIV-1 gp120. This work defines lineage-specific differences in layer 3 from HIV-1 and SIV.
Assuntos
Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/metabolismo , HIV-1/metabolismo , Glicoproteínas de Membrana/metabolismo , Vírus da Imunodeficiência Símia/metabolismo , Proteínas do Envelope Viral/metabolismo , Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Linhagem Celular , Linhagem Celular Tumoral , Células HEK293 , Proteína gp41 do Envelope de HIV/metabolismo , Infecções por HIV/virologia , HIV-2/metabolismo , Células HeLa , Humanos , Ligação Proteica/fisiologia , Conformação Proteica , Receptores CCR5/metabolismo , Internalização do VírusRESUMO
UNLABELLED: Anti-HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) antibodies without broadly neutralizing activity correlated with protection in the RV144 clinical trial, stimulating interest in other protective mechanisms involving antibodies, such as antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). Env epitopes targeted by many antibodies effective at mediating ADCC are poorly exposed on the unliganded Env trimer. Here we investigated the mechanism of exposure of ADCC epitopes on Env and showed that binding of Env and CD4 within the same HIV-1-infected cell effectively exposes these epitopes. Env capacity to transit to the CD4-bound conformation is required for ADCC epitope exposure. Importantly, cell surface CD4 downregulation by Nef and Vpu accessory proteins and Vpu-mediated BST-2 antagonism modulate exposure of ADCC-mediating epitopes and reduce the susceptibility of infected cells to this effector function in vitro. Significantly, Env conformational changes induced by cell surface CD4 are conserved among Env from HIV-1 and HIV-2/SIVmac lineages. Altogether, our observations describe a highly conserved mechanism required to expose ADCC epitopes that might help explain the evolutionary advantage of downregulation of cell surface CD4 by the HIV-1 Vpu and Nef proteins. IMPORTANCE: HIV-1 envelope epitopes targeted by many antibodies effective at mediating antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) are poorly exposed on the unliganded envelope trimer. Here we investigated the mechanism of exposure of these epitopes and found that envelope interaction with the HIV-1 CD4 receptor is required to expose some of these epitopes. Moreover, our results suggest that HIV-1 CD4 downregulation might help avoid the killing of HIV-1-infected cells by this immune mechanism.
Assuntos
Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos/imunologia , Antígenos CD4/imunologia , Epitopos de Linfócito T/imunologia , HIV-1/imunologia , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologia , Antígenos CD4/química , Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/imunologia , Linfócitos T CD4-Positivos/virologia , Linhagem Celular , Epitopos de Linfócito T/metabolismo , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/metabolismo , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/metabolismo , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologia , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismo , Humanos , Modelos Moleculares , Ligação Proteica/imunologia , Conformação Proteica , Domínios e Motivos de Interação entre Proteínas , Multimerização Proteica , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/imunologia , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/metabolismo , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/química , Produtos do Gene env do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismo , Produtos do Gene nef do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologia , Produtos do Gene nef do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismoRESUMO
HIV-1 entry involves the viral envelope glycoproteins (Env gps) and receptors on the target cell. Receptor binding channels the intrinsic high potential energy of Env into the force required to fuse the membranes of virus and target cell. For some HIV-1 strains, prolonged incubation on ice decreases Env potential energy and results in functional inactivation. By characterizing chimeras between two primary clade C HIV-1 strains that differ in sensitivities to cold, soluble CD4, and neutralizing antibodies, we found that these properties were largely determined by discrete elements within the gp120 variable regions V1V2 and V3.
Assuntos
Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Temperatura Baixa , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/metabolismo , HIV-1/genética , Conformação Proteica , Inativação de Vírus , Internalização do Vírus , Sequência de Aminoácidos , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/metabolismo , Eletroforese em Gel de Poliacrilamida , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/química , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/genética , Dados de Sequência Molecular , Fragmentos de Peptídeos/metabolismoRESUMO
The trimeric envelope glycoprotein (Env) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) mediates virus entry into host cells. CD4 engagement with the gp120 exterior envelope glycoprotein subunit represents the first step during HIV-1 entry. CD4-induced conformational changes in the gp120 inner domain involve three potentially flexible topological layers (layers 1, 2, and 3). Structural rearrangements between layer 1 and layer 2 have been shown to facilitate the transition of the envelope glycoprotein trimer from the unliganded to the CD4-bound state and to stabilize gp120-CD4 interaction. However, our understanding of CD4-induced conformational changes in the gp120 inner domain remains incomplete. Here, we report that a highly conserved element of the gp120 inner domain, layer 3, plays a pivot-like role in these allosteric changes. In the unliganded state, layer 3 modulates the association of gp120 with the Env trimer, probably by influencing the relationship of the gp120 inner and outer domains. Importantly, layer 3 governs the efficiency of the initial gp120 interaction with CD4, a function that can also be fulfilled by filling the Phe43 cavity. This work defines the functional importance of layer 3 and completes a picture detailing the role of the gp120 inner domain in CD4-induced conformational transitions in the HIV-1 Env trimer.
Assuntos
Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/química , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/metabolismo , HIV-1/metabolismo , Animais , Sítios de Ligação , Linhagem Celular , Cristalografia por Raios X , Cães , Células HEK293 , Proteína gp120 do Envelope de HIV/genética , HIV-1/genética , Humanos , Mutação , Ligação Proteica , Conformação Proteica , Estrutura Terciária de Proteína , Internalização do VírusRESUMO
The HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) is expressed at the surface of infected cells and as such can be targeted by non-neutralizing antibodies (nnAbs) that mediate antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). Previous single-molecule Forster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) studies demonstrated that Env from clinical isolates predominantly adopt a 'closed' conformation (State 1), which is resistant to nnAbs. After interacting with the cellular receptor CD4, the conformational equilibrium of Env shifts toward States 2 and 3, exposing the coreceptor binding site (CoRBS) and permitting binding of antibodies targeting this site. We showed that the binding of anti-CoRBS Abs enables the engagement of other nnAbs that target the cluster A epitopes on Env. Anti-cluster A nnAbs stabilize an asymmetric Env conformation, State 2A, and have potent ADCC activity. CRF01_AE strains were suggested to be intrinsically susceptible to ADCC mediated by nnAbs. This may be due to the presence of a histidine at position 375, known to shift Env towards more 'open' conformations. In this work, through adaptation of an established smFRET imaging approach, we report that the conformational dynamics of native, unliganded HIV-1CRF01_AE Env indicates frequent sampling of the State 2A conformation. This is in striking contrast with Envs from clades A and B, for example HIV-1JR-FL, which do not transition to State 2A in the absence of ligands. These findings inform on the conformational dynamics of HIV-1CRF01_AE Env, which are relevant for structure-based design of both synthetic inhibitors of receptor binding, and enhancers of ADCC as therapeutic alternatives.
RESUMO
Natural Killer (NK) cells have the potential to eliminate HIV-1-infected cells by antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC). NK cell activation is tightly regulated by the engagement of its inhibitory and activating receptors. The activating receptor CD16 drives ADCC upon binding to the Fc portion of antibodies; NK cell activation is further sustained by the co-engagement of activating receptors NTB-A and 2B4. During HIV-1 infection, Nef and Vpu accessory proteins contribute to ADCC escape by downregulating the ligands of NTB-A and 2B4. HIV-1 also evades ADCC by keeping its envelope glycoproteins (Env) in a "closed" conformation which effectively masks epitopes recognized by non-neutralizing antibodies (nnAbs) which are abundant in the plasma of people living with HIV. To achieve this, the virus uses its accessory proteins Nef and Vpu to downregulate the CD4 receptor, which otherwise interacts with Env and exposes the epitopes recognized by nnAbs. Small CD4-mimetic compounds (CD4mc) have the capacity to expose these epitopes, thus sensitizing infected cells to ADCC. Given the central role of NK cell co-activating receptors NTB-A and 2B4 in Fc-effector functions, we studied their contribution to CD4mc-mediated ADCC. Despite the fact that their ligands are partially downregulated by HIV-1, we found that both co-activating receptors significantly contribute to CD4mc sensitization of HIV-1-infected cells to ADCC.
Assuntos
Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos , Anticorpos Anti-HIV , Infecções por HIV , HIV-1 , Células Matadoras Naturais , Família de Moléculas de Sinalização da Ativação Linfocitária , Humanos , Citotoxicidade Celular Dependente de Anticorpos/imunologia , HIV-1/imunologia , Células Matadoras Naturais/imunologia , Anticorpos Anti-HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/imunologia , Infecções por HIV/virologia , Família de Moléculas de Sinalização da Ativação Linfocitária/imunologia , Família de Moléculas de Sinalização da Ativação Linfocitária/metabolismo , Antígenos CD4/imunologia , Antígenos CD4/metabolismo , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologia , Proteínas do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismo , Produtos do Gene nef do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/imunologia , Produtos do Gene nef do Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana/metabolismo , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/metabolismo , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/imunologia , Proteínas Virais Reguladoras e Acessórias/genética , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/imunologia , Proteínas ViroporinasRESUMO
The continued evolution of severe acute respiratory syndrome 2 (SARS-CoV-2) requires persistent monitoring of its subvariants. Omicron subvariants are responsible for the vast majority of SARS-CoV-2 infections worldwide, with XBB and BA.2.86 sublineages representing more than 90% of circulating strains as of January 2024. To better understand parameters involved in viral transmission, we characterized the functional properties of Spike glycoproteins from BA.2.75, CH.1.1, DV.7.1, BA.4/5, BQ.1.1, XBB, XBB.1, XBB.1.16, XBB.1.5, FD.1.1, EG.5.1, HK.3, BA.2.86 and JN.1. We tested their capacity to evade plasma-mediated recognition and neutralization, binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), their susceptibility to cold inactivation, Spike processing, as well as the impact of temperature on Spike-ACE2 interaction. We found that compared to the early wild-type (D614G) strain, most Omicron subvariants' Spike glycoproteins evolved to escape recognition and neutralization by plasma from individuals who received a fifth dose of bivalent (BA.1 or BA.4/5) mRNA vaccine and improve ACE2 binding, particularly at low temperatures. Moreover, BA.2.86 had the best affinity for ACE2 at all temperatures tested. We found that Omicron subvariants' Spike processing is associated with their susceptibility to cold inactivation. Intriguingly, we found that Spike-ACE2 binding at low temperature was significantly associated with growth rates of Omicron subvariants in humans. Overall, we report that Spikes from newly emerged Omicron subvariants are relatively more stable and resistant to plasma-mediated neutralization, present improved affinity for ACE2 which is associated, particularly at low temperatures, with their growth rates.IMPORTANCEThe persistent evolution of SARS-CoV-2 gave rise to a wide range of variants harboring new mutations in their Spike glycoproteins. Several factors have been associated with viral transmission and fitness such as plasma-neutralization escape and ACE2 interaction. To better understand whether additional factors could be of importance in SARS-CoV-2 variants' transmission, we characterize the functional properties of Spike glycoproteins from several Omicron subvariants. We found that the Spike glycoprotein of Omicron subvariants presents an improved escape from plasma-mediated recognition and neutralization, Spike processing, and ACE2 binding which was further improved at low temperature. Intriguingly, Spike-ACE2 interaction at low temperature is strongly associated with viral growth rate, as such, low temperatures could represent another parameter affecting viral transmission.
Assuntos
Enzima de Conversão de Angiotensina 2 , COVID-19 , SARS-CoV-2 , Glicoproteína da Espícula de Coronavírus , Temperatura , Glicoproteína da Espícula de Coronavírus/genética , Glicoproteína da Espícula de Coronavírus/metabolismo , Enzima de Conversão de Angiotensina 2/metabolismo , Enzima de Conversão de Angiotensina 2/genética , Humanos , SARS-CoV-2/genética , SARS-CoV-2/fisiologia , SARS-CoV-2/metabolismo , COVID-19/transmissão , COVID-19/virologia , Ligação Proteica , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/imunologia , Anticorpos Neutralizantes/sangueRESUMO
CD4-mimetics (CD4mcs) are small molecule compounds that mimic the interaction of the CD4 receptor with HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env). Env from primary viruses normally samples a "closed" conformation which occludes epitopes recognized by CD4-induced (CD4i) non-neutralizing antibodies (nnAbs). CD4mcs induce conformational changes on Env resulting in the exposure of these otherwise inaccessible epitopes. Here we evaluated the capacity of plasma from a cohort of 50 people living with HIV to recognize HIV-1-infected cells and eliminate them by antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) in the presence of a potent indoline CD4mc. We observed a marked heterogeneity among plasma samples. By measuring the levels of different families of CD4i Abs, we found that the levels of anti-cluster A, anti-coreceptor binding site and anti-gp41 cluster I antibodies are responsible for plasma-mediated ADCC in presence of CD4mc.