Imagery rescripting and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing as treatment for adults with post-traumatic stress disorder from childhood trauma: randomised clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Investigation of treatments that effectively treat adults with post-traumatic stress disorder from childhood experiences (Ch-PTSD) and are well tolerated by patients is needed to improve outcomes for this population. AIMS: The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two trauma-focused treatments, imagery rescripting (ImRs) and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR), for treating Ch-PTSD. METHOD: We conducted an international, multicentre, randomised clinical trial, recruiting adults with Ch-PTSD from childhood trauma before 16 years of age. Participants were randomised to treatment condition and assessed by blind raters at multiple time points. Participants received up to 12 90-min sessions of either ImRs or EMDR, biweekly. RESULTS: A total of 155 participants were included in the final intent-to-treat analysis. Drop-out rates were low, at 7.7%. A generalised linear mixed model of repeated measures showed that observer-rated post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms significantly decreased for both ImRs (d = 1.72) and EMDR (d = 1.73) at the 8-week post-treatment assessment. Similar results were seen with secondary outcome measures and self-reported PTSD symptoms. There were no significant differences between the two treatments on any standardised measure at post-treatment and follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: ImRs and EMDR treatments were found to be effective in treating PTSD symptoms arising from childhood trauma, and in reducing other symptoms such as depression, dissociation and trauma-related cognitions. The low drop-out rates suggest that the treatments were well tolerated by participants. The results from this study provide evidence for the use of trauma-focused treatments for Ch-PTSD.

Predictors and moderators of treatment outcomes in phase-based treatment and trauma-focused treatments in patients with childhood abuse-related post-traumatic stress disorder.

Background: Knowledge of treatment predictors and moderators is important for improving the effectiveness of treatment for PTSD due to childhood abuse.Objective: The first aim of this study was to test the potential predictive value of variables commonly associated with PTSD resulting from a history of repeated childhood abuse, in relation to treatment outcomes. The second aim was to examine if complex PTSD symptoms act as potential moderators between treatment conditions and outcomes.Method: Data were obtained from a randomized controlled trial comparing a phase-based treatment (Skills Training in Affect and Interpersonal Regulation [STAIR] followed by Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing [EMDR] therapy; n = 57) with a direct trauma-focused treatment (EMDR therapy only; n = 64) in people with PTSD due to childhood abuse. The possible predictive effects of the presence of borderline personality disorder, dissociative symptoms, and suicidal and self-injurious behaviours were examined. In addition, it was determined whether symptoms of emotion regulation difficulties, self-esteem, and interpersonal problems moderated the relation between the treatment condition and PTSD post-treatment, corrected for pre-treatment PTSD severity.Results: Pre-treatment PTSD severity proved to be a significant predictor of less profitable PTSD treatment outcomes. The same was true for the severity of dissociative symptoms, but only post-treatment, and not when corrected for false positives. Complex PTSD symptoms did not moderate the relationship between the treatment conditions and PTSD treatment outcomes.Conclusions: The current findings suggest that regardless of the common comorbid symptoms studied, immediate trauma-focused treatment is a safe and effective option for individuals with childhood-related PTSD. However, individuals experiencing severe symptoms of PTSD may benefit from additional treatment sessions or the addition of other evidence-based PTSD treatment approaches. The predictive influence of dissociative sequelae needs further research.The study design was registered in The Dutch trial register (https://www.trialregister.nl/trialreg/admin/rctview.asp?TC = 5991) NTR5991 and was approved by the medical ethics committee of Twente NL 56641.044.16 CCMO.

One of first studies that aimed to identify multiple potential predictors and moderators in patients with PTSD related to childhood abuse.Only severe PTSD predicted worse treatment outcomes.The predictive influence of dissociative sequelae needs further research.

The course of mental health disorders after a disaster: predictors and comorbidity.

Current longitudinal disaster studies usually focus only on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), although some studies have shown that increased risks for other disorders and comorbidity is common. To obtain an insight into the course of postdisaster psychopathology, a community sample of survivors of the Enschede fireworks disaster was followed from 2-3 weeks to 4-years postdisaster. Diagnostic interviews (Composite International Diagnostic Interview [CIDI]; World Health Organization, 1997) and childhood stressor interviews were administered at 2-years postdisaster (n = 260); the CIDI was repeated at 4-years postdisaster (n = 201, response rate 77.3%). At 2-years postdisaster many survivors (40.6%) suffered from PTSD (21.8%), specific phobia (21.5%), and/or depression (16.1%). These disorders were highly comorbid. At 4-years postdisaster, prevalence significantly diminished. Instead of full recovery, diagnostic classifications shifted in several survivors over time. This resulted in low rates of PTSD but still elevated rates of depression and specific phobia. The course of the 3 entangled disorders of PTSD, depression, and specific phobia was further studied by constructing 4 groups of survivors based on the diagnostic status at 2- and 4-years postdisaster: healthy, recovered, chronic, and delayed-onset. Initial depressive symptoms, maternal dysfunction, childhood physical abuse, and disaster exposure were found to discriminate between the groups and predict long-term psychopathology.

The effect of twice-weekly versus once-weekly sessions of either imagery rescripting or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for adults with PTSD from childhood trauma (IREM-Freq): a study protocol for an international randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Trauma-focused treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are commonly delivered either once or twice a week. Initial evidence suggests that session frequency affects treatment response, but very few trials have investigated the effect of session frequency. The present study's aim is to compare treatment outcomes of twice-weekly versus once-weekly sessions of two treatments for PTSD related to childhood trauma, imagery rescripting (ImRs) and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). We hypothesize that both treatments will be more effective when delivered twice than once a week. How session frequency impacts treatment response, whether treatment type moderates the frequency effect, and which treatment type and frequency works best for whom will also be investigated. METHODS: The IREM-Freq trial is an international multicenter randomized clinical trial conducted in mental healthcare centers across Australia, Germany, and the Netherlands. We aim to recruit 220 participants, who will be randomized to one of four conditions: (1) EMDR once a week, (2) EMDR twice a week, (3) ImRs once a week, or (4) ImRs twice a week. Treatment consists of 12 sessions. Data are collected at baseline until one-year follow-up. The primary outcome measure is clinician-rated PTSD symptom severity. Secondary outcome measures include self-reported PTSD symptom severity, complex PTSD symptoms, trauma-related cognitions and emotions, depressive symptoms, dissociation, quality of life, and functioning. Process measures include memory, learning, therapeutic alliance, motivation, reluctance, and avoidance. Additional investigations will focus on predictors of treatment outcome and PTSD severity, change mechanisms of EMDR and ImRs, the role of emotions, cognitions, and memory, the optimization of treatment selection, learned helplessness, perspectives of patients and therapists, the network structure of PTSD symptoms, and sudden treatment gains. DISCUSSION: This study will extend our knowledge on trauma-focused treatments for PTSD related to childhood trauma and, more specifically, the importance of session frequency. More insight into the optimal session frequency could lead to improved treatment outcomes and less dropout, and in turn, to a reduction of healthcare costs. Moreover, the additional investigations will broaden our understanding of how the treatments work and variables that affect treatment outcome. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Netherlands Trial Register NL6965, registered 25/04/2018.

Assessing the application of latent class and latent profile analysis for evaluating the construct validity of complex posttraumatic stress disorder: cautions and limitations.

Background: The diagnosis of complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) has been suggested for inclusion in the 11th version of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), with support for its construct validity coming from studies employing Latent Class Analysis (LCA) and Latent Profile Analysis (LPA). Objective: The current study aimed to critically evaluate the application of the techniques LCA and LPA as applied in previous studies to substantiate the construct validity of CPTSD. Method: Both LCA and LPA were applied systematically in one sample (n = 245), replicating the setup of previous studies as closely as possible. The interpretation of classes was augmented with the use of graphical visualization. Results: The LCA and LPA analyses indicated divergent results in the same dataset. LCA and LPA partially supported the existence of classes of patients endorsing different PTSD and CPTSD symptom patterns. However, further inspection of the results with scatterplots did not support a clear distinction between PTSD and CPTSD, but rather suggested that there is much greater variability in clinical presentations amongst adult PTSD patients than can be fully accounted for by either PTSD or CPTSD. Discussion: We argue that LCA and LPA may not be sufficient methods to decide on the construct validity of CPTSD, as different subgroups of patients are identified, depending on the statistical exact method used and the interpretation of the fit of different models. Additional methods, including graphical inspection should be employed in future studies.

Antecedentes: El diagnóstico de Trastorno por Estrés Postraumático Complejo (TEPTC) ha sido sugerido para su inclusión en la 11ª versión de la Clasificación Internacional de Enfermedades (CIE-11), con el respaldo de su validez de constructo proveniente de estudios que emplean Análisis de Clases Latentes (LCA) y Análisis de Perfil Latente (APL).Objetivo: El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar críticamente la aplicación de las técnicas LCA y APL, utilizadas en estudios anteriores, para corroborar la validez de constructo del TEPTC.Método: Se aplicaron sistemáticamente, tanto la técnica LCA como la técnica APL, en una muestra (n = 245), que buscó replicar lo más fielmente posible las configuraciones empleadas en estudios previos. La interpretación de las clases se potenció con el uso de visualización gráfica.Resultados: Los análisis LCA y APL indicaron resultados divergentes en el mismo conjunto de datos. LCA y APL apoyaron parcialmente la existencia de clases de pacientes que validan diferentes patrones de síntomas para el TEPT y el TEPTC. Sin embargo, una mayor inspección de los resultados con diagramas de dispersión no respaldó una distinción clara entre el TEPT y el TEPTC, sino que sugirieron que existe una variabilidad mucho mayor en las presentaciones clínicas entre los pacientes adultos con TEPT de lo que pueda explicarse ya sea por el TEPT o el TEPTC.Discusión: Proponemos que los análisis LCA y APL pueden ser métodos insuficientes para decidir sobre la validez de constructo del TEPTC, ya que se identifican diferentes subgrupos de pacientes, que depende del método estadístico utilizado y la interpretación del ajuste de diferentes modelos. En futuros estudios deben emplearse métodos adicionales que incluyan la inspección gráfica.

Tobacco usage interacts with postdisaster psychopathology on circadian salivary cortisol.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) have been associated with increased rates of tobacco usage as well as with dysregulations of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. At the same time tobacco also affects the HPA axis. This paper examines the relationships between PTSD, posttraumatic MDD, smoking and levels of circadian cortisol 2-3 years postdisaster. Subjects were survivors of the Enschede fireworks disaster. The sample consisted of 38 healthy survivors, 40 subjects with PTSD, and 17 subjects with posttraumatic MDD. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview was used to determine mental disorders in accordance with DSM-IV criteria. Salivary cortisol samples were collected at home immediately upon awakening, 30 min after awakening, at noon, and at 10 p.m. Quantity of smoking was measured through self-report. The results of the study show that salivary cortisol concentrations were higher in smoking subjects. Survivors with MDD following the disaster had a flatter diurnal cortisol curve than subjects with PTSD or healthy survivors. In survivors with PTSD and healthy individuals the usual dynamic pattern of increase in cortisol past awakening was present, while we did not observe this in posttraumatic MDD. These survivors with MDD tended to use more tobacco per day, and the cortisol group differences could only be revealed when we adjusted for quantity of smoking. Smoking, which may be an important palliative coping style in dealing with posttraumatic arousal symptoms, seems to mediate the relationship between traumatic stress and the HPA-axis.

Cortisol and post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has inconsistently been associated with lower levels of cortisol. AIMS: To compare basal cortisol levels in adults with current PTSD and in people without psychiatric disorder. METHOD: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Standardised mean differences (SMD) in basal cortisol levels were calculated and random-effects models using inverse variance weighting were applied. RESULTS: Across 37 studies, 828 people with PTSD and 800 controls did not differ in cortisol levels (pooled SMD=-0.12, 95% CI=-0.32 to 0.080). Subgroup analyses revealed that studies assessing plasma or serum showed significantly lower levels in people with PTSD than in controls not exposed to trauma. Lower levels were also found in people with PTSD when females were included, in studies on physical or sexual abuse, and in afternoon samples. CONCLUSIONS: Low cortisol levels in PTSD are only found under certain conditions. Future research should elucidate whether low cortisol is related to gender or abuse and depends on the measurement methods used.

Disaster-related posttraumatic stress symptoms and sustained attention: evaluation of depressive symptomatology and sleep disturbances as mediators.

Research about attentional functioning following trauma has almost exclusively been performed in patient populations with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In this study the relationship between sustained attention and PTSD symptoms was examined in a community sample of survivors of a major disaster using the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT) and the Self-Rating Scale for PTSD (SRS-PTSD) 2-3 years postdisaster. Analyses revealed low but significant partial correlations between PTSD symptoms and the least difficult subtests, ruling out the effects of age, education, depressive symptomatology, and sleep disturbances. These results demonstrate that PTSD symptoms link to attentional dysfunction 2-3 years postdisaster.