Relationships Between Exposure to Different Gambling Advertising Types, Advertising Impact and Problem Gambling.

People with gambling problems report more exposure and impact from gambling advertising, although less is known regarding the role of specific advertising types. Data on gamblers (n = 5830, 48.5% women, mean age = 44.27) was collected from a general population cross-sectional survey in Norway (32.7% response rate). We examined if problem gambling was associated with perceived advertising impact (on gambling involvement, awareness, and knowledge) or exposure (via internet, TV, retail outlet, newspaper, and direct advertising). We also investigated if advertising exposure was associated with advertising impact. ANOVAs revealed that problem gambling was associated with increased perceived advertising impact on gambling involvement (ω2 = 0.09, p < .001) and awareness of gambling (ω2 = 0.04, p < .001). Reported exposure to direct advertising increased linearly with problem gambling level (ω2 = 0.04, p < .001), whereas we found small/no differences in exposure to other types of advertising. Multiple regressions revealed that among advertising types, internet advertising was the strongest predictor of perceived advertising impact on gambling involvement (ß = 0.1, p < .001). TV advertising was the strongest predictor of advertising impact on knowledge of gambling forms and operators (ß = 0.28, p < .001) and awareness of gambling (ß = .05, p < .05). Future studies should elucidate how different subtypes of internet advertising impact gambling involvement. Clinicians should assess clients' experiences with direct advertising and devise interventions for coping. Researchers should be aware that internet and direct advertising allow for more tailored content compared to other advertising types.

Aggression and Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use Intent in Adolescents: A Longitudinal Study.

Background: There is a dearth of longitudinal studies on risk factors for anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use and intent. Objectives: We conducted a longitudinal investigation of factors associated with AAS use intent from age 18 to 19, examining particularly the role of physical and verbal aggression. A sample of Norwegians completed questionnaires containing demographic, AAS use and intent, other addictions, aggression, and health measures at ages 18 (N = 1333, females = 58.9%) and 19 (N = 1277, females = 61.7%). The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and hierarchical multiple regression. Results: Results show that AAS use prevalence increased from 1 person at age 18 to 4 persons at age 19. Intent to use AAS, being male, living alone, and AAS use (all at 18 years) were associated with higher AAS use intent at 19 years. We found no associations between physical or verbal aggression and AAS use intent from ages 18 to 19. Conclusions: Our findings indicate temporal stability in AAS use intent, as well as the influence of demographic and health factors on AAS use intent from ages 18 to 19. Implications of findings for practice and future research are discussed.

Aggression Is Associated With Increased Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use Contemplation Among Adolescents.

We investigated the relationship between aggression and anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use intent among adolescents. A nationally representative sample of Norwegian 18-year-olds (N = 1,334, females = 58.7%) took part in a survey in 2013 (response rate = 64.9%). Participants completed the physical and verbal subscales of the Short-Form Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, the Intent to use AAS Scale, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-Consumption, and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. They also provided demographic information and answered questions about AAS use, gambling participation, as well as cigarette and snus use. Descriptive statistics and multinomial logistic regression were used to analyze the data. Lifetime and past year prevalence of AAS use was 0.1%. Between 0.4% and 1.7% of participants disclosed intent to use while between 1.1% and 2.5% expressed neutral intent to initiate AAS use. Compared to persons low on aggression, individuals high on aggression were more likely to report intent and curiosity towards initiating AAS use. Our findings indicate that aggression is a risk factor for AAS use contemplation among adolescents.

Prevalence and Correlates of Problem Gambling in a Representative Sample of Norwegian 17-Year-Olds.

We report data collected in a representative sample of 17-year-old Norwegians to investigate prevalence rates of non-problem, risk, and problem gambling, as measured by the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). In addition, we explored the importance of demographic, personality, motivational, social, and health variables explaining variance in adolescent gambling. Prevalence rates of risk and problem gambling were low but similar to those found in previous studies outside of Norway using the PGSI in adolescent samples. With regard to the relative importance of the various covariates, we found that motivational variables (future gambling intentions, attitudes toward gambling, and gambling-related knowledge) distinguished best between those who did not gamble, non-problem gamblers, and risk and problem gamblers. Furthermore, social variables were important covariates of adolescent gambling; significant associations were found for family and friends' approval of gambling, parental monitoring, father's level of education, and having relatives or friends with a history of a gambling disorder. We discuss possible reasons for differences between the covariates with regard to their importance for explaining adolescent gambling and address implications for future research.

Treatment effects of therapeutic interventions for gaming disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

The prevalence of gaming disorder is assumed to be between 2%-5%. The treatment effect of different therapeutic interventions of gaming disorder has not been studied extensively. This systematic review and meta-analysis sought to identify all intervention studies on gaming disorder with a control group, determine the effect of the interventions, and examine moderators. Studies applying a therapeutic intervention and using an appropriate comparison group were identified by searching electronic databases, previous reviews, and reference lists. Data on type of treatment, name of outcome measurement, symptom level and other study characteristics were extracted and analyzed using meta-analysis and meta-regression. A total of 38 studies and 76 effect sizes, originating from 9524 participants were included. RoB2 and ROBINS-I risk of bias tools were used to assess within-study risk of bias. Correlational hierarchical models with robust variance estimation were fitted to effect size data and yielded a moderate summary estimate. Egger's sandwich test, funnel plot inspections, and other tests were conducted to assess risk of bias between studies. Results indicate that there may be an overall effect of therapeutic interventions for gaming disorder, but confidence in these findings is compromised by small-study effects, possible publication bias, a limited study pool, and a lack of standardization. The field needs more higher quality studies before the evidence-base can support reliable meta-analytic estimates.

An exploratory qualitative interview study on grassroots esports in sports clubs.

Aim: The current study aimed to explore grassroots esports in sports clubs in Norway from the perspective of volunteer esports leaders. Method and results: Fifteen volunteers were recruited from grassroots esports initiatives in various sports clubs and were interviewed via online video conferencing using a pre-developed semi-structured interview guide. Data was analyzed using inductive thematic analysis with a realist approach, which generated the following themes: (1) Local community impact at the center of motivation, (2) lack of support threatens the operations of the initiatives, and (3) competency development to overcome barriers. The participants perceived the grassroots esports initiatives as essential for children in the local community and as the core of their motivation as volunteers. Several challenges were mentioned for sustaining the initiatives, such as maintaining motivation, resource management, and recruiting new volunteers. Finally, competency and qualified esports trainers were mentioned as necessary for a high-quality offer. Conclusion: The grassroots esports initiatives in sports clubs are viewed by volunteer esports leaders to affect the local community positively. However, there are challenges tied to the operation of such initiatives, such as engaging volunteers and raising competence. Future research should investigate barriers to help develop strategies to support grassroots esports initiatives.

Association between problem gambling and personality traits: a longitudinal study among the general Norwegian population.

Objective: The present study investigates the longitudinal relationship between problematic gambling (PG) and the five factor model's personality traits using autoregressive cross-lagged models. Methods: The data used in the current study was collected by a national survey in 2013 (n = 10,081) and a follow-up study (n = 5,848) in 2015. PG was measured using Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI) while personality was assessed using Mini-International Personality Item Pool (MINI-IPIP). Participants who completed the CPGI and all the personality items during both waves (n = 2,702) were analysed. Results: The results show that neuroticism had positive cross-lagged associations with CPGI. In contrast, conscientiousness and agreeableness in 2013 were found to have inverse cross-lagged effect on CPGI in 2015. Finally, openness and extraversion did not have any cross-lagged associations with CPGI. Conclusion: PG poses serious negative implications for the involved individuals as well as their associated close social circle. Hence, it is important to understand predictors of PG for prevention purposes. Personality traits are one of the influential frameworks for examining uncontrolled psychopathological behaviors like PG. The study findings offer significant theoretical as well as practical implications.

Measuring loot box consumption and negative consequences: Psychometric investigation of a Swedish version of the Risky Loot Box Index.

Loot boxes are products in videogames that is earned by playing a video game or by buying them. Loot boxes has similar mechanisms as a lottery and there is an ongoing debate if loot boxes are gambling. However, to understand the potential harm of loot boxes valid instruments are needed. An English study psychometrically evaluated an instrument focused on risky loot box use called the Risky Loot Box Index. The study evaluated 12 item scale and based on a factor analysis it was reduced to a five-item scale. The aim of our study is to evaluate a Swedish version of the 12-item instrument from a psychometric perspective. Two samples recruited via an online survey were used. The first sample was recruited from the gambling site Unibet. A mail with an invitation to participate was sent to esports bettors and sport bettors at the gambling site. The second sample was recruited from a Facebook forum focused on e-sports. An invitation was posted on the forum to partake in the study. A total of 195 of respondents (96% men and 4% women) with a mean age of 33.76 (SD = 12.34) answered the Unibet survey and 169 respondents (96% men and 4% women and non-binary) with a mean age of 23.89 (SD = 5.52) answered the Facebook survey. An exploratory factor analysis yielded a two-factor seven item solution. The factors were overconsumption regarding time spent on loot boxes and the other factor was focused on overconsumption of loot boxes in terms of spending money. The confirmatory factor analysis conducted in the Facebook sample validated the result from the exploratory factor analysis. The conclusion of the study is that the Swedish version of the Risky Loot Index has good psychometric properties and can used to measure risky loot box consumption.

Where is January? The month-SNARC effect in sequence-form synaesthetes.

Two experiments compared the SNARC effect for calendar months (January-December) in 16 normal controls against four participants reporting a common but little-studied variety of synaesthesia where ordinal sequences are explicitly experienced in elaborate spatially extended patterns (spatial forms). The SNARC effect (spatial-numerical association of response codes) (Dehaene et al., 1993) in which responses to early versus late members of ordinal sequences show left-hand versus right-hand reaction time (RT) advantages, respectively, has previously provided evidence for implicit associations between sequential and spatial representation in non-synaesthetes (Gevers et al., 2003). The current study revealed an automatic month-SNARC effect for the synaesthetes, with the left/right-hand advantage reversing for synaesthetes who experienced early months on the right rather than the left of their roughly circular year forms. The absence of any month-SNARC effect among 16 controls demonstrated cognitive differences in sequence representation between controls and synaesthetes, but failed to replicate previous findings for non-synaesthetes. Certain details of the synaesthetes' SNARC effect may also constrain the way SNARC effects in non-synaesthetes are interpreted.

Does Individual Gambling Behavior Vary across Gambling Venues with Differing Numbers of Terminals? An Empirical Real-World Study using Player Account Data.

Research examining gambling behavior via experiments, self-report, and/or observation presents many methodical challenges particularly in relation to objectivity. However, the use of player account-based gambling data provides purely objective data. Based on this real-world data, the primary aim of the present study was to examine gambling behavior in gambling venues with different numbers of gambling terminals (i.e., venues with one terminal; 2-5 terminals; 6-10 terminals; 11-16 terminals). Player account-based gambling data aggregated over a year (2015) amounting to 153,379 observations within 93,034 individual gamblers (males = 74%; mean age = 44.1, SD = 16.4 years) were analyzed. Gambling frequency was highest in venues with 2-5 terminals (54.5%) and lowest in venues with 11-16 terminals (1.6%). Approximately half of the sample (52.5%) gambled in only one venue category, with the majority (81.5%) preferring venues with 2-5 terminals present. Only 0.8% of the sample gambled in all four venue categories. Compared to venues with one terminal, venues with two or more terminals were associated with gamblers placing more bets, and spending more time and money per session. However, gamblers had higher losses (albeit small) in venues with one terminal compared to venues with 2-5 terminals. No differences in net outcome were found between venues with one terminal and those with 6-10 and 11-16 terminals. Overall, the present study demonstrates that in the natural gambling environment, gambling behavior is reinforced in venues with multiple terminals.

Gradations of awareness in a modified sequence learning task.

We argue performance in the serial reaction time (SRT) task is associated with gradations of awareness that provide examples of fringe consciousness [Mangan, B. (1993b). Taking phenomenology seriously: the "fringe" and its implications for cognitive research. Consciousness and Cognition, 2, 89-108, Mangan, B. (2003). The conscious "fringe": Bringing William James up to date. In B. J. Baars, W. P. Banks & J. B. Newman (Eds.), Essential sources in the scientific study of consciousness (pp. 741-759). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.], and address limitations of the traditional SRT procedure, including criticism of exclusion generation tasks. Two experiments are conducted with a modified SRT procedure where irrelevant stimulus attributes obscure the sequence rule. Our modified paradigm, which includes a novel exclusion task, makes it easier to demonstrate a previously controversial influence of response stimulus interval (RSI) on awareness. It also allows identification of participants showing fringe consciousness rather than explicit sequence knowledge, as reflected by dissociations between different awareness measures. The NEO-PI-R variable Openness to Feelings influenced the diversity of subjective feelings reported during two awareness measures, but not the degree of learning and awareness as previously found with traditional SRT tasks [Norman, E., Price, M. C., & Duff, S. C. (2006). Fringe consciousness in sequence learning: the influence of individual differences. Consciousness and Cognition, 15(4), 723-760.]. This suggests possible distinctions between two components of fringe consciousness.

The Relationships between Mental Health Symptoms and Gambling Behavior in the Transition from Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood.

There is a paucity of longitudinal investigations of gambling behavior in the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood. We conducted a longitudinal investigation of the associations and patterns of change between mental health symptoms and gambling behavior. A representative sample of Norwegians completed questionnaires containing demographic, mental health, and gambling measures at age 17 (N = 2055), and at ages 18 (N = 1334) and 19 (N = 1277). Using latent class analysis, three classes of gambling behavior were identified: consistent non-gambling (71.1%), consistent non-risk gambling (23.8%), and risky-and-problem gambling (5.1%). Being male, showing higher physical and verbal aggression and having more symptoms of depression were associated with greater odds of belonging to the risky-and-problem gambling class at age 17. Overall, the risky-and-problem gambling class had the highest physical and verbal aggression, anxiety, and depression at 19 years. Our findings elucidate the reciprocal relationship between mental health and gambling behavior in the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood, and the importance of recognizing these factors in designing targeted interventions.

The impact of gambling advertising: Problem gamblers report stronger impacts on involvement, knowledge, and awareness than recreational gamblers.

Although there is a general lack of empirical evidence that advertising influences gambling participation, the regulation of gambling advertising is hotly debated among academic researchers, treatment specialists, lobby groups, regulators, and policymakers. This study contributes to the ongoing debate by investigating perceived impacts of gambling advertising in a sample of gamblers drawn from the general population in Norway (n = 6,034). Three dimensions of advertising impacts were identified, representing perceived impacts on (a) gambling-related attitudes, interest, and behavior ("involvement"); (b) knowledge about gambling options and providers ("knowledge"); and (c) the degree to which people are aware of gambling advertising ("awareness"). Overall, impacts were strongest for the knowledge dimension, and, for all 3 dimensions, the impact increased with level of advertising exposure. Those identified as problem gamblers in the sample (n = 57) reported advertising impacts concerning involvement more than recreational gamblers, and this finding was not attributable to differences in advertising exposure. Additionally, younger gamblers reported stronger impacts on involvement and knowledge but were less likely to agree that they were aware of gambling advertising than older gamblers. Male gamblers were more likely than female gamblers to report stronger impacts on both involvement and knowledge. These findings are discussed with regard to existing research on gambling advertising as well as their implications for future research and policy-making. (PsycINFO Database Record

Type of musical soundtrack affects behavior in gambling.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: A long existing notion is that the presence of music might affect gambling behavior. In spite of this, little empirical research on the subject exists. The main aim of the present study was to corroborate and elaborate on the existing findings concerning gambling and music through a laboratory based experiment. METHODS: A nonclinical sample of 101 undergraduate students (72 females, 29 males) played a computerized gambling task in which either a high-tempo or a low-tempo musical soundtrack was present. Persistence in gambling, reaction time and evaluation of the game comprised the outcome variables. RESULTS: Low-tempo music was associated with increased gambling persistence in terms of overall number of bets placed, whereas high-tempo music was associated with intensified gambling in terms of faster reaction time per placed bet. Type of soundtrack was not associated with game evaluation. DISCUSSION: Our findings add to the existing knowledge by showing that both low-tempo and high-tempo music can be associated with more risky gambling behavior, the former by increasing gambling persistence and the latter by reducing reaction time for bets placed. CONCLUSIONS: In sum, the existing studies provide compelling evidence that music can affect various aspects of gambling behavior. These findings may have clinical implications by educating gamblers on the effects of structural mechanisms in gambling on behavior.

Tempo in electronic gaming machines affects behavior among at-risk gamblers.

Background and aims Electronic gaming machines (EGM) may be a particularly addictive form of gambling, and gambling speed is believed to contribute to the addictive potential of such machines. The aim of the current study was to generate more knowledge concerning speed as a structural characteristic in gambling, by comparing the effects of three different bet-to-outcome intervals (BOI) on gamblers bet-sizes, game evaluations and illusion of control during gambling on a computer simulated slot machine. Furthermore, we investigated whether problem gambling moderates effects of BOI on gambling behavior and cognitions. Methods 62 participants played a computerized slot machine with either fast (400 ms), medium (1700 ms) or slow (3000 ms) BOI. SOGS-R was used to measure pre-existing gambling problems. Mean bet size, game evaluations and illusion of control comprised the dependent variables. Results Gambling speed had no overall effect on either mean bet size, game evaluations or illusion of control, but in the 400 ms condition, at-risk gamblers (SOGS-R score > 0) employed higher bet sizes compared to no-risk (SOGS-R score = 0) gamblers. Conclusions The findings corroborate and elaborate on previous studies and indicate that restrictions on gambling speed may serve as a harm reducing effort for at-risk gamblers.