Maternal immunization and vitamin A sufficiency impact sow primary adaptive immunity and passive protection to nursing piglets against porcine epidemic diarrhea virus infection.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) causes a highly contagious enteric disease with major economic losses to swine production worldwide. Due to the immaturity of the neonatal piglet immune system and given the high virulence of PEDV, improving passive lactogenic immunity is the best approach to protect suckling piglets against the lethal infection. We tested whether oral vitamin A (VA) supplementation and PEDV exposure of gestating and lactating VA-deficient (VAD) sows would enhance their primary immune responses and boost passive lactogenic protection against the PEDV challenge of their piglets. We demonstrated that PEDV inoculation of pregnant VAD sows in the third trimester provided higher levels of lactogenic protection of piglets as demonstrated by >87% survival rates of their litters compared with <10% in mock litters and that VA supplementation to VAD sows further improved the piglets' survival rates to >98%. We observed significantly elevated PEDV IgA and IgG antibody (Ab) titers and Ab-secreting cells (ASCs) in VA-sufficient (VAS)+PEDV and VAD+VA+PEDV sows, with the latter maintaining higher Ab titers in blood prior to parturition and in blood and milk throughout lactation. The litters of VAD+VA+PEDV sows also had the highest serum PEDV-neutralizing Ab titers at piglet post-challenge days (PCD) 0 and 7, coinciding with higher PEDV IgA ASCs and Ab titers in the blood and milk of their sows, suggesting an immunomodulatory role of VA in sows. Thus, sows that delivered sufficient lactogenic immunity to their piglets provided the highest passive protection against the PEDV challenge. Maternal immunization during pregnancy (± VA) and VA sufficiency enhanced the sow primary immune responses, expression of gut-mammary gland trafficking molecules, and passive protection of their offspring. Our findings are relevant to understanding the role of VA in the Ab responses to oral attenuated vaccines that are critical for successful maternal vaccination programs against enteric infections in infants and young animals.

Vitamin A deficiency and vitamin A supplementation affect innate and T cell immune responses to rotavirus A infection in a conventional sow model.

Rotavirus A (RVA) causes ~200,000 diarrheal deaths annually in children <5yrs, mostly in low- and middle-income countries. Risk factors include nutritional status, social factors, breastfeeding status, and immunodeficiency. We evaluated the effects of vitamin A (VA) deficiency/VA supplementation and RVA exposure (anamnestic) on innate and T cell immune responses in RVA seropositive pregnant and lactating sows and passive protection of their piglets post-RVA challenge. Sows were fed VA deficient (VAD) or sufficient (VAS) diets starting at gestation day (GD)30. A subset of VAD sows received VA supplementation from GD|76 (30,000IU/day, VAD+VA). Sows (6 groups) were inoculated with porcine RVA G5P[7] (OSU strain) or Minimal Essential Medium (mock) at GD~90: VAD+RVA; VAS+RVA; VAD+VA+RVA; VAD-mock; VAS-mock; and VAD+VA-mock. Blood, milk, and gut-associated tissues were collected from sows at several time points to examine innate [natural killer (NK), dendritic (DC) cells], T cell responses and changes in genes involved in the gut-mammary gland (MG)-immunological axis trafficking. Clinical signs of RVA were evaluated post inoculation of sows and post-challenge of piglets. We observed decreased frequencies of NK cells, total and MHCII+ plasmacytoid DCs, conventional DCs, CD103+ DCs and CD4+/CD8+ and T regulatory cells (Tregs) and NK cell activity in VAD+RVA sows. Polymeric Ig receptor and retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARα) genes were downregulated in mesenteric lymph nodes and ileum of VAD+RVA sows. Interestingly, RVA-specific IFN-γ producing CD4+/CD8+ T cells were increased in VAD-Mock sows, coinciding with increased IL-22 suggesting inflammation in these sows. VA supplementation to VAD+RVA sows restored frequencies of NK cells and pDCs, and NK activity, but not tissue cDCs and blood Tregs. In conclusion, similar to our recent observations of decreased B cell responses in VAD sows that led to decreased passive immune protection of their piglets, VAD impaired innate and T cell responses in sows, while VA supplementation to VAD sows restored some, but not all responses. Our data reiterate the importance of maintaining adequate VA levels and RVA immunization in pregnant and lactating mothers to achieve optimal immune responses, efficient function of the gut-MG-immune cell-axis and to improve passive protection of their piglets.

Mechanisms of Kwashiorkor-Associated Immune Suppression: Insights From Human, Mouse, and Pig Studies.

Malnutrition refers to inadequate energy and/or nutrient intake. Malnutrition exhibits a bidirectional relationship with infections whereby malnutrition increases risk of infections that further aggravates malnutrition. Severe malnutrition (SM) is the main cause of secondary immune deficiency and mortality among children in developing countries. SM can manifest as marasmus (non-edematous), observed most often (68.6% of all malnutrition cases), kwashiorkor (edematous), detected in 23.8% of cases, and marasmic kwashiorkor, identified in ~7.6% of SM cases. Marasmus and kwashiorkor occur due to calorie-energy and protein-calorie deficiency (PCD), respectively. Kwashiorkor and marasmic kwashiorkor present with reduced protein levels, protein catabolism rates, and altered levels of micronutrients leading to uncontrolled oxidative stress, exhaustion of anaerobic commensals, and proliferation of pathobionts. Due to these alterations, kwashiorkor children present with profoundly impaired immune function, compromised intestinal barrier, and secondary micronutrient deficiencies. Kwashiorkor-induced alterations contribute to growth stunting and reduced efficacy of oral vaccines. SM is treated with antibiotics and ready-to-use therapeutic foods with variable efficacy. Kwashiorkor has been extensively investigated in gnotobiotic (Gn) mice and piglet models to understand its multiple immediate and long-term effects on children health. Due to numerous physiological and immunological similarities between pigs and humans, pig represents a highly relevant model to study kwashiorkor pathophysiology and immunology. Here we summarize the impact of kwashiorkor on children's health, immunity, and gut functions and review the relevant findings from human and animal studies. We also discuss the reciprocal interactions between PCD and rotavirus-a highly prevalent enteric childhood pathogen due to which pathogenesis and immunity are affected by childhood SM.

Immune Impairment Associated with Vitamin A Deficiency: Insights from Clinical Studies and Animal Model Research.

Vitamin A (VA) is critical for many biological processes, including embryonic development, hormone production and function, the maintenance and modulation of immunity, and the homeostasis of epithelium and mucosa. Specifically, VA affects cell integrity, cytokine production, innate immune cell activation, antigen presentation, and lymphocyte trafficking to mucosal surfaces. VA also has been reported to influence the gut microbiota composition and diversity. Consequently, VA deficiency (VAD) results in the imbalanced production of inflammatory and immunomodulatory cytokines, intestinal inflammation, weakened mucosal barrier functions, reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and disruption of the gut microbiome. Although VAD is primarily known to cause xerophthalmia, its role in the impairment of anti-infectious defense mechanisms is less defined. Infectious diseases lead to temporary anorexia and lower dietary intake; furthermore, they adversely affect VA status by interfering with VA absorption, utilization and excretion. Thus, there is a tri-directional relationship between VAD, immune response and infections, as VAD affects immune response and predisposes the host to infection, and infection decreases the intestinal absorption of the VA, thereby contributing to secondary VAD development. This has been demonstrated using nutritional and clinical studies, radiotracer studies and knockout animal models. An in-depth understanding of the relationship between VAD, immune response, gut microbiota and infections is critical for optimizing vaccine efficacy and the development of effective immunization programs for countries with high prevalence of VAD. Therefore, in this review, we have comprehensively summarized the existing knowledge regarding VAD impacts on immune responses to infections and post vaccination. We have detailed pathological conditions associated with clinical and subclinical VAD, gut microbiome adaptation to VAD and VAD effects on the immune responses to infection and vaccines.

The Combined Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 and Tryptophan Treatment Modulates Immune and Metabolome Responses to Human Rotavirus Infection in a Human Infant Fecal Microbiota-Transplanted Malnourished Gnotobiotic Pig Model.

Human rotavirus (HRV) is a major cause of childhood diarrhea in developing countries where widespread malnutrition contributes to the decreased oral vaccine efficacy and increased prevalence of other enteric infections, which are major concerns for global health. Neonatal gnotobiotic (Gn) piglets closely resemble human infants in their anatomy, physiology, and outbred status, providing a unique model to investigate malnutrition, supplementations, and HRV infection. To understand the molecular signatures associated with immune enhancement and reduced diarrheal severity by Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) and tryptophan (TRP), immunological responses and global nontargeted metabolomics and lipidomics approaches were investigated on the plasma and fecal contents of malnourished pigs transplanted with human infant fecal microbiota and infected with virulent (Vir) HRV. Overall, EcN + TRP combined (rather than individual supplement action) promoted greater and balanced immunoregulatory/immunostimulatory responses associated with greater protection against HRV infection and disease in malnourished humanized piglets. Moreover, EcN + TRP treatment upregulated the production of several metabolites with immunoregulatory/immunostimulatory properties: amino acids (N-acetylserotonin, methylacetoacetyl-CoA), lipids (gamma-butyrobetaine, eicosanoids, cholesterol-sulfate, sphinganine/phytosphingosine, leukotriene), organic compound (biliverdin), benzenoids (gentisic acid, aminobenzoic acid), and nucleotides (hypoxathine/inosine/xanthine, cytidine-5'-monophosphate). Additionally, the levels of several proinflammatory metabolites of organic compounds (adenosylhomocysteine, phenylacetylglycine, urobilinogen/coproporphyrinogen) and amino acid (phenylalanine) were reduced following EcN + TRP treatment. These results suggest that the EcN + TRP effects on reducing HRV diarrhea in neonatal Gn pigs were at least in part due to altered metabolites, those involved in lipid, amino acid, benzenoids, organic compounds, and nucleotide metabolism. Identification of these important mechanisms of EcN/TRP prevention of HRV diarrhea provides novel targets for therapeutics development. IMPORTANCE Human rotavirus (HRV) is the most common cause of viral gastroenteritis in children, especially in developing countries, where the efficacy of oral HRV vaccines is reduced. Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) is used to treat enteric infections and ulcerative colitis while tryptophan (TRP) is a biomarker of malnutrition, and its supplementation can alleviate intestinal inflammation and normalize intestinal microbiota in malnourished hosts. Supplementation of EcN + TRP to malnourished humanized gnotobiotic piglets enhanced immune responses and resulted in greater protection against HRV infection and diarrhea. Moreover, EcN + TRP supplementation increased the levels of immunoregulatory/immunostimulatory metabolites while decreasing the production of proinflammatory metabolites in plasma and fecal samples. Profiling of immunoregulatory and proinflammatory biomarkers associated with HRV perturbations will aid in the identification of treatments against HRV and other enteric diseases in malnourished children.

Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 Enhances Efficacy of Oral Attenuated Human Rotavirus Vaccine in a Gnotobiotic Piglet Model.

Human rotavirus (HRV) infection is a major cause of viral gastroenteritis in young children worldwide. Current oral vaccines perform poorly in developing countries where efficacious vaccines are needed the most. Therefore, an alternative affordable strategy to enhance efficacy of the current RV vaccines is necessary. This study evaluated the effects of colonization of neonatal gnotobiotic (Gn) pigs with Escherichia coli Nissle (EcN) 1917 and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) probiotics on immunogenicity and protective efficacy of oral attenuated (Att) HRV vaccine. EcN-colonized pigs had reduced virulent HRV (VirHRV) shedding and decreased diarrhea severity compared with the LGG-colonized group. They also had enhanced HRV-specific IgA antibody titers in serum and antibody secreting cell numbers in tissues pre/post VirHRV challenge, HRV-specific IgA antibody titers in intestinal contents, and B-cell subpopulations in tissues post VirHRV challenge. EcN colonization also enhanced T-cell immune response, promoted dendritic cells and NK cell function, reduced production of proinflammatory cytokines/Toll like receptor (TLR), and increased production of immunoregulatory cytokines/TLR expression in various tissues pre/post VirHRV challenge. Thus, EcN probiotic adjuvant with AttHRV vaccine enhances the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of AttHRV to a greater extent than LGG and it can be used as a safe and economical oral vaccine adjuvant.

Rotavirus A Inoculation and Oral Vitamin A Supplementation of Vitamin A Deficient Pregnant Sows Enhances Maternal Adaptive Immunity and Passive Protection of Piglets against Virulent Rotavirus A.

The aim of this study was to determine the impact of vitamin A deficiency (VAD)/supplementation (±VA) and group A RV (RVA) maternal immunization of RVA seropositive multiparous pregnant sows, on their immune responses (anamnestic response) and on passive protection of their piglets against RVA challenge. Our results showed that VAD- mock sows had increased RVA RNA shedding at 1-5 days post piglet RVA challenge, and their litters had increased RVA shedding and diarrhea frequency throughout the experiment. VAD decreased memory B cell frequencies while VA supplementation increased RVA specific IgA/IgG antibody (Ab) secreting cell (ASC) numbers in blood, milk, and tissues of RVA inoculated VAD sows. The increased numbers of RVA specific IgA/IgG ASCs in blood, milk/colostrum, intestinal contents, and tissues in VA supplemented VAD sows, suggest a role of VA in B cell immunity and trafficking to tissues. We also observed that RVA inoculated sows had the highest viral neutralizing Ab titers in serum and milk while VA supplementation of VAD sows and RVA inoculation increased IgA+ B cell frequencies in sow colostrum. In summary, we demonstrated that daily oral VA-supplementation (2nd trimester-throughout lactation) to RVA inoculated VAD sows improved the function of their gut-mammary-IgA immunological axis, reducing viral RNA shedding, diarrhea, and increasing weight gain in suckling piglets.

Trained immunity induced by in vivo peptide-based STAT6 inhibition prevents ragweed allergy in mice.

BACKGROUND: Trained immunity is the ability of the innate immune system to form immune memory responses to provide support the formation of appropriate adaptive responses. Allergic airways disease (AAD) is a maladapted immune response to allergens, initiated and maintained by the type 2 (T2) inflammatory pathway. It is predicated by the elaboration of cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 and follows activation of the STAT6 transcription factor. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the role of trained immunity in mucosal immune responses following neonatal vaccination with the STAT6 inhibitory peptide (STAT6-IP), in preventing the development of ragweed-induced AAD. METHODS: We demonstrate that transfer of CD4+ T cells or dendritic cells (DC) from STAT6-IP vaccinated wild-type BALB/c mice to naïve mice, that were subsequently chronically exposed to sensitizing doses of ragweed allergen, is sufficient to prevent development of T2 responses in recipients. RESULTS: Our results demonstrate significant reductions in; airways hyperresponsiveness (AHR); ragweed-specific IgE; pulmonary inflammation; T2 cytokines; and inflammatory gene expressions in recipient mice. Expression of IDO, TGFß and T regulatory cells were all significantly increased. Anti-TGFß treatment during the ragweed sensitization phase re-constituted the pro-inflammatory T2 immune response. We show that tolerance can be attained via DC trained in the STAT6-IP-mediated tolerant milieu. This effect is not restricted to a particular allergen and does not require antigen-mediated T cell activation prior to transfer. CONCLUSION: Adoptive transfer experiments suggest that STAT6-IP treatment trains dendritic and cells to mediate tolerant immunity to chronic ragweed exposure in the airways. This indicates that early transient STAT6-inhibition constitutes an effective immunomodulatory airways allergy preventative strategy.

Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 Enhances Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses in a Ciprofloxacin-Treated Defined-Microbiota Piglet Model of Human Rotavirus Infection.

Human rotavirus (HRV) infection is a major cause of gastroenteritis in children worldwide. Broad-spectrum antibiotic-induced intestinal microbial imbalance and the ensuing immune-metabolic dysregulation contribute to the persistence of HRV diarrhea. Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 (EcN), a Gram-negative probiotic, was shown to be a potent immunostimulant and alleviated HRV-induced diarrhea in monocolonized gnotobiotic (Gn) piglets. Our goal was to determine how EcN modulates immune responses in ciprofloxacin (Cipro)-treated Gn piglets colonized with a defined commensal microbiota (DM) and challenged with virulent HRV (VirHRV). Cipro given in therapeutic doses for a short term reduced serum and intestinal total and HRV-specific antibody titers, while EcN treatment alleviated this effect. Similarly, EcN treatment increased the numbers of total immunoglobulin-secreting cells, HRV-specific antibody-secreting cells, activated antibody-forming cells, resting/memory antibody-forming B cells, and naive antibody-forming B cells in systemic and/or intestinal tissues. Decreased levels of proinflammatory but increased levels of immunoregulatory cytokines and increased frequencies of Toll-like receptor-expressing cells were evident in the EcN-treated VirHRV-challenged group. Moreover, EcN treatment increased the frequencies of T helper and T cytotoxic cells in systemic and/or intestinal tissues pre-VirHRV challenge and the frequencies of T helper cells, T cytotoxic cells, effector T cells, and T regulatory cells in systemic and/or intestinal tissues postchallenge. Moreover, EcN treatment increased the frequencies of systemic and mucosal conventional and plasmacytoid dendritic cells, respectively, and the frequencies of systemic natural killer cells. Our findings demonstrated that Cipro use altered immune responses of DM-colonized neonatal Gn pigs, while EcN supplementation rescued these immune parameters partially or completely.IMPORTANCE Rotavirus (RV) is a primary cause of malabsorptive diarrhea in children and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, especially in developing countries. The use of antibiotics exacerbates intestinal microbial imbalance and results in the persistence of RV-induced diarrhea. Probiotics are now being used to treat enteric infections and ulcerative colitis. We showed previously that probiotics partially protected gnotobiotic (Gn) piglets against human RV (HRV) infection and decreased the severity of diarrhea by modulating immune responses. However, the interactions between antibiotic and probiotic treatments and HRV infection in the context of an established gut microbiota are poorly understood. In this study, we developed a Gn pig model to study antibiotic-probiotic-HRV interactions in the context of a defined commensal microbiota (DM) that mimics aspects of the infant gut microbiota. Our results provide valuable information that will contribute to the treatment of antibiotic- and/or HRV-induced diarrhea and may be applicable to other enteric infections in children.

Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 administered as a dextranomar microsphere biofilm enhances immune responses against human rotavirus in a neonatal malnourished pig model colonized with human infant fecal microbiota.

Human rotavirus (HRV) is a leading cause of diarrhea in children. It causes significant morbidity and mortality, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where HRV vaccine efficacy is low. The probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle (EcN) 1917 has been widely used in the treatment of enteric diseases in humans. However, repeated doses of EcN are required to achieve maximum beneficial effects. Administration of EcN on a microsphere biofilm could increase probiotic stability and persistence, thus maximizing health benefits without repeated administrations. Our aim was to investigate immune enhancement by the probiotic EcN adhered to a dextranomar microsphere biofilm (EcN biofilm) in a neonatal, malnourished piglet model transplanted with human infant fecal microbiota (HIFM) and infected with rotavirus. To create malnourishment, pigs were fed a reduced amount of bovine milk. Decreased HRV fecal shedding and protection from diarrhea were evident in the EcN biofilm treated piglets compared with EcN suspension and control groups. Moreover, EcN biofilm treatment enhanced natural killer cell activity in blood mononuclear cells (MNCs). Increased frequencies of activated plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) in systemic and intestinal tissues and activated conventional dendritic cells (cDC) in blood and duodenum were also observed in EcN biofilm as compared with EcN suspension treated pigs. Furthermore, EcN biofilm treated pigs had increased frequencies of systemic activated and resting/memory antibody forming B cells and IgA+ B cells in the systemic tissues. Similarly, the mean numbers of systemic and intestinal HRV-specific IgA antibody secreting cells (ASCs), as well as HRV-specific IgA antibody titers in serum and small intestinal contents, were increased in the EcN biofilm treated group. In summary EcN biofilm enhanced innate and B cell immune responses after HRV infection and ameliorated diarrhea following HRV challenge in a malnourished, HIFM pig model.

Comparative Sequence Analysis of Historic and Current Porcine Rotavirus C Strains and Their Pathogenesis in 3-Day-Old and 3-Week-Old Piglets.

The increased prevalence of porcine group C rotavirus (PRVC) in suckling piglets and the emergence of new genetically distinct PRVC strains are concerning due to the associated significant economic losses they cause to the swine industry. We sequenced and analyzed two new PRVC strains, RV0104 (G3), and RV0143 (G6) and compared their pathogenesis with that of the historic strain Cowden (G1) in gnotobiotic (Gn) pigs. Near complete genome sequence analysis confirmed that these two strains were distinct from one another and the Cowden strain. VP1, VP2, VP6, NSP1-NSP3, and NSP5 genes were more similar between Cowden and RV0143, whereas VP3, VP7, and NSP4 shared higher nucleotide identity between Cowden and RV0104. Three-day-old and 3-week-old Gn piglets were inoculated with 105 FFU/piglet of Cowden, RV0104 or RV0143, or mock. All 3-day-old piglets developed severe diarrhea, anorexia, and lethargy, with mean PRVC fecal shedding titers peaking and numerically higher in RV0104 and RV0143 piglets on post infection day (PID) 2. Histopathological examination of the small intestine revealed that the 3-day-old Cowden and RV0104 inoculated piglets were mildly affected, while significant destruction of small intestinal villi was observed in the RV0143 inoculated piglets. Consistent with the highest degree of pathological changes in the small intestines, the RV0143 inoculated piglets had numerically higher levels of serum IL-17 and IFN-α cytokines and numerically lower PRVC IgA geometric mean antibody titers. Milder pathological changes and overall higher titers of PRVC IgA antibodies were observed in 3-week-old vs. 3-day-old piglets. Additionally, diarrhea was only observed in RV0104 and RV0143 (but not Cowden) inoculated 3-week-old piglets, while levels of serum IL-10 and PRVC IgA antibodies were higher in Cowden inoculated pigs, consistent with the lack of diarrhea. Thus, we confirmed that these current, genetically heterogeneous PRVC strains possess distinct pathobiological characteristics that may contribute to the increased prevalence of PRVC diarrhea in neonatal suckling piglets.

Malnutrition Decreases Antibody Secreting Cell Numbers Induced by an Oral Attenuated Human Rotavirus Vaccine in a Human Infant Fecal Microbiota Transplanted Gnotobiotic Pig Model.

Human rotavirus (HRV) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in children, especially in developing countries. Malnutrition is prevalent in these countries, which may contribute to the decreased oral vaccine efficacy, posing a concern for global health. Neonatal gnotobiotic (Gn) pigs closely resemble human infants in their anatomy, physiology, and outbred status and are a unique model to investigate malnutrition, oral live attenuated HRV (AttHRV) vaccination, and subsequent virulent HRV (VirHRV) challenge. We evaluated the impact of malnutrition on AttHRV vaccine efficacy and B cell immune responses in neonatal germfree (GF) or Gn pigs transplanted with human infant fecal microbiota (HIFM). Pigs were fed either deficient or sufficient bovine milk diets. Malnutrition did not significantly affect the serum and intestinal contents total or HRV-specific IgG and IgA antibody titers pre VirHRV challenge. However, HRV-specific IgG and IgA antibody secreting cells (ASCs) were reduced in blood or intestinal tissues following AttHRV vaccination and pre VirHRV challenge in deficient HIFM transplanted pigs. Furthermore, post-VirHRV challenge, deficient HIFM pigs had decreased total Ig and HRV-specific IgG and IgA antibody titers in serum or intestinal contents, in addition to decreased HRV-specific IgG and IgA ASCs in blood and ileum, compared with sufficient HIFM pigs. Our results indicate that deficient diet impairs B cell mucosal, and systemic immune responses following HRV vaccination, and challenge. The impaired immune responses contributed to the decreased protective efficacy of the AttHRV vaccine, suggesting that malnutrition may significantly reduce the effectiveness of oral HRV vaccines in children in developing countries.

Protein deficiency reduces efficacy of oral attenuated human rotavirus vaccine in a human infant fecal microbiota transplanted gnotobiotic pig model.

BACKGROUND: Low efficacy of rotavirus (RV) vaccines in developing African and Asian countries, where malnutrition is prevalent, remains a major concern and a challenge for global health. METHODS: To understand the effects of protein malnutrition on RV vaccine efficacy, we elucidated the innate, T cell and cytokine immune responses to attenuated human RV (AttHRV) vaccine and virulent human RV (VirHRV) challenge in germ-free (GF) pigs or human infant fecal microbiota (HIFM) transplanted gnotobiotic (Gn) pigs fed protein-deficient or -sufficient bovine milk diets. We also analyzed serum levels of tryptophan (TRP), a predictor of malnutrition, and kynurenine (KYN). RESULTS: Protein-deficient pigs vaccinated with oral AttHRV vaccine had lower protection rates against diarrhea post-VirHRV challenge and significantly increased fecal virus shedding titers (HIFM transplanted but not GF pigs) compared with their protein-sufficient counterparts. Reduced vaccine efficacy in protein-deficient pigs coincided with altered serum IFN-α, TNF-α, IL-12 and IFN-γ responses to oral AttHRV vaccine and the suppression of multiple innate immune parameters and HRV-specific IFN-γ producing T cells post-challenge. In protein-deficient HIFM transplanted pigs, decreased serum KYN, but not TRP levels were observed throughout the experiment, suggesting an association between the altered TRP metabolism and immune responses. CONCLUSION: Collectively, our findings confirm the negative effects of protein deficiency, which were exacerbated in the HIFM transplanted pigs, on innate, T cell and cytokine immune responses to HRV and on vaccine efficacy, as well as on TRP-KYN metabolism.

Estrogen and testosterone use different cellular pathways to inhibit osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption.

UNLABELLED: Using human peripheral blood CD14(+) osteoclast precursors, we show that testosterone directly inhibits osteoclast formation and bone resorption at physiological concentrations. Instead, estrogen has no direct effects, whereas its action seems to be mediated through osteoblasts by producing osteoprotegerin. Both estrogen and testosterone acts through their cognate receptors. INTRODUCTION: Estrogen (E2) deficiency is associated with both the development of postmenopausal and senile form of osteoporosis in elderly women. Testosterone (Te) deficiency, on the other hand, may cause osteoporosis in men. In both sexes, osteoporosis is associated with disturbed bone turnover, including increased bone resorption caused by enhanced osteoclast formation and increased osteoclast activity. However, the mechanisms by which E2 or Te act on bone are not fully understood, and one of the central questions is whether these hormones act directly on osteoclast precursors or whether their action is mediated through osteoblastic cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We cultured human peripheral blood CD14(+) osteoclast precursors in the presence of RANKL, macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), TNF-alpha, and dexamethasone to induce them to differentiate into osteoclasts. To study the possible osteoblast-mediated effects, osteoclast precursors were also co-cultured either with human MG-63 or SaOS-2 osteoblast-derived osteosarcoma cells. These cultures were treated with 10(-8)-10(-12) M of E2 or Te for 7 days. RESULTS: E2 did not have any direct effect on osteoclast formation, whereas testosterone inhibited osteoclast formation and bone resorption in a dose-dependent manner. In co-cultures, where MG-63 or SaOS-2 cells were present, E2 and Te inhibited osteoclast formation in a dose-dependent manner. At the same time, E2 and Te treatment in MG-63 or SaOS-2 cell-containing cultures stimulated significantly the formation of osteoprotegerin (OPG) compared with untreated cultures measured by ELISA assay from the culture medium. The effects of E2 and Te on osteoclast formation and bone resorption were completely antagonized by an E2 receptor (ER) antagonist, ICI 182,780, and an androgen receptor (AR) antagonist, flutamide, suggesting ER- and AR-mediated mechanisms, respectively, in these cultures. CONCLUSIONS: Te is likely to have direct and indirect inhibitory effects on human osteoclast formation and bone resorption, whereas the effect of E2 on osteoclast precursors and osteoclasts seems to be mediated by osteoblastic cells. Inhibitory effect of E2 is associated with the stimulated secretion of OPG by osteoblast-derived osteosarcoma cells. Mechanism of action of E2 and Te is mediated by ER and AR, respectively.

The in vitro cytotoxic and apoptotic activity of Triphala--an Indian herbal drug.

A study on cytotoxic effect of acetone extract of "Triphala" whose antimutagenicity has already been tested. The in vitro antimutagenic activity of Triphala--an Indian herbal drug. Food Chemistry and Toxicology 40, 47-54) was extended to test its cytotoxic effects on cancer cell-lines using Shionogi 115 (S115) and MCF-7 breast cancer cells and PC-3 and DU-145 prostate cancer cells as models. The results revealed that acetone extract of "Triphala" showed a significant cytotoxic effect on these cancer cell-lines and the effect was similar on all cancer cell lines used in this study. The major phenolic compounds in the most potent acetone extracts were isolated and purified. Structural analysis was conducted using spectroscopic techniques including mass spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and infrared (IR) which showed gallic acid as the major component. The suppression of the growth of cancer cells in cytotoxic assays may be due to the gallic acid-a major polyphenol observed in "Triphala".

In vitro bioactivity-guided fractionation and characterization of polyphenolic inhibitory fractions from Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del.

The present study was undertaken to evaluate antimutagenic and cytotoxic effects of different extracts/fractions of Acacia nilotica prepared by maceration method. The potency order of different extracts was more or less similar in Ames assay as well as in cytotoxic assay. Considering the maximum potential of acetone extract in both the assays, the studies were initiated to fractionate this extract. Two pure fractions, namely AN-1 and AN-2, were obtained from acetone extract, of which AN-2 was found to be of gallic acid and AN-1 fraction is still to be identified. In conclusion, the antimutagenic and cytotoxic activities exhibited by acetone extract may partially be ascribed to the presence of gallic acid and other polyphenols.

Studies on correlation of antimutagenic and antiproliferative activities of Juglans regia L.

We investigated the effect of water and acetone extract of Juglans regia L. to evaluate its antimutagenic and antiproliferative activities. The antimutagenic study using TA98 and TA100 tester strains of Salmonella revealed the water and acetone extracts to be more effective than the benzene and chloroform extracts in inhibiting the revertants induced by 2-aminoflourene (2AF) in TA100 tester strains. The most effective extracts in the Ames assay were further evaluated using the Lucifer luciferase assay and in time course studies for antiproliferative activities using the Hoechst staining to observe apoptotic cell deaths. The acetone extract showed a correlation of antimutagenic activities in the Ames assay with its antiproliferative effect in different cell lines, while the water extract exerted its effect distinctly in each cell line. Further studies are still needed to evaluate the cytotoxicity in experiments carried out in vivo.

Inhibition of experimental allergic airways disease by local application of a cell-penetrating dominant-negative STAT-6 peptide.

Allergic airways disease is initiated and perpetuated by an aberrant Th2 inflammatory response regulated in part by the cytokines IL-4 and IL-13, each of which induces activation of the STAT-6 transcription factor. Data from murine models indicate that the clinical manifestations of acute asthma are STAT-6 dependent, and thus, STAT-6 is a target for drug development in allergic airways disease. We designed a novel chimeric peptide (STAT-6 inhibitory peptide (STAT-6-IP)) comprised of a sequence predicted to bind to and inhibit STAT-6, fused to a protein transduction domain, to facilitate cellular uptake of the STAT-6-binding peptide. Our data demonstrate that the STAT-6-IP inhibited OVA-induced production of Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 in vitro. In contrast, the STAT-6-IP did not affect production of IFN-gamma, demonstrating specificity for Th2 cytokine inhibition. Following intranasal administration, the STAT-6-IP was localized to epithelial cells in the airways. Finally, in in vivo murine models of allergic rhinitis and asthma, intranasal delivery of the STAT-6-IP inhibited OVA-induced lung inflammation and mucus production as well as accumulation of eosinophils and IL-13 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and OVA-dependent airway hyperresponsiveness. Together these data show that local application of cell-penetrating peptide inhibitors of STAT-6 has significant potential for the treatment of allergic rhinitis and asthma.