Advances in infrared thermography: Surgical aspects, vascular changes, and pain monitoring in veterinary medicine.

One of the main functions of infrared thermography (IRT) consists in detecting temperature changes in organisms caused by variations in surface blood circulation. IRT is a useful tool that has been used mainly as a diagnostic method for various stress-causing pathologies, though recent suggestions indicate that it can be used to assess the block quality of certain body regions. In the field of anaesthesiology, IRT has been applied to brachial and epidural blocks, while in algology, changes in surface blood circulation associated with sympathetic activity have been investigated. Thermography has also been employed to complement pain level scales based on the facial expressions of patients in critical condition, or after surgery. In addition, it has been used as a tool in research designed to evaluate different surgical procedures in human medicine, as in the case of surgical burrs for placing dental implants, where IRT helps assess the degree of heating associated with bone devascularisation, reduction in vascular perfusion as a consequence of stroke, and changes in the autonomous nervous system, or the degree of vascular changes in flaps applied to burn patients. In veterinary medicine, thermography has brought several benefits for animals in terms of evaluating lesions, diseases, and surgical procedures. The aim of this review is to evaluate how IRT can be used as a tool in surgical procedures, cases of vascular change, and pain monitoring in veterinary medicine with an emphasis on small animals.

Assessment of the nociceptive response to the use of cannabidiol alone and in combination with meloxicam through infrared pupillometry in female dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy.

The negative effects of pain are a constant concern in the surgical management of animals, leading to the search for new drugs or more effective analgesic protocols to control this negative emotion. This study aimed to evaluate the nociceptive response of cannabidiol (CBD) alone and in combination with meloxicam using infrared pupillometry in female dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy (OVH) under isoflurane anesthesia. A total of 60 female dogs of different breeds were included. These dogs were randomly assigned to four study groups according to the treatment: Control Group (G0: n = 15) receiving saline solution; group premedicated with meloxicam at a dose of 0.2 mg Kg-1 IV (GMelox: n = 15). Postoperatively this drug was used at 0.1 mg Kg-1 IV every 24 h; the CBD-treated Group (GCBD: n = 15) at a dose of 2 mg Kg-1 orally in the preoperative. Postoperatively was administrated every 12 h; and the Group premedicated with the combination of meloxicam and CBD (GMelox/CBD: n = 15) Meloxicam at a dose of 0.2 mg Kg-1 IV preoperatively, and 0.1 mg Kg-1 IV during the postoperative. CBD at a dose of 2 mg Kg-1 orally in the preoperative, and every 12 h in the postoperative. Treatments were administered for 48 postoperative hours. After OVH, the pupillary neurologic index, pupillary size, minimum diameter (MIN), percentage change, constriction latency (Lat), constriction velocity, and maximum constriction velocity were recorded as pupillometric variables in both eyes during events (E): Baseline (30 min before drug administration), E30 min, E1h, E2h, E3h, E4h, E8h, E12h, E24h, and E48h. The Short-Form of the Glasgow Composite Measure Pain Scale (GCMPS-SF) was used to assess pain during the same events. Overall, it was observed that the pupillometric variables Size, MIN., and Lat. were significantly higher in G0 compared to the other groups during E30 min, E1h, and E2h (p = 0.03), indicating greater pupil dilation in G0 animals. Additionally, no statistically significant differences were observed in GCMPS-SF between GMelox, GCBD, and GMelox/CBD during the postoperative period (p > 0.05). In contrast, the scores were statistically different compared to G0 (p = 0.00001), where all animals in this group received rescue analgesia at 2 h post-surgery. According to pupillometry and scores on the GCMPS-SF scale, it was observed that monotherapy with cannabidiol provides a similar analgesic effect to meloxicam alone or in combination with cannabidiol to manage acute pain in dogs. Similarly, these findings suggest that infrared pupillometry could be a tool for recognizing acute pain in dogs.

Mother-Offspring Bonding after Calving in Water Buffalo and Other Ruminants: Sensory Pathways and Neuroendocrine Aspects.

The cow-calf bonding is a process that must be developed within the first six hours after calving. Both the buffalo dam and the newborn calf receive a series of sensory cues during calving, including olfactory, tactile, auditory, and visual stimuli. These inputs are processed in the brain to develop an exclusive bond where the dam provides selective care to the filial newborn. The limbic system, sensory cortices, and maternal-related hormones such as oxytocin mediate this process. Due to the complex integration of the maternal response towards the newborn, this paper aims to review the development of the cow-calf bonding process in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) via the olfactory, tactile, auditory, and visual stimuli. It will also discuss the neuroendocrine factors motivating buffalo cows to care for the calf using examples in other ruminant species where dam-newborn bonding has been extensively studied.

Tactile, Auditory, and Visual Stimulation as Sensory Enrichment for Dairy Cattle.

Several types of enrichment can be used to improve animal welfare. This review summarizes the literature on the use of mechanical brushes, tactile udder stimulation, music, and visual stimuli as enrichment methods for dairy cows. Mechanical brushes and tactile stimulation of the udder have been shown to have a positive effect on milk yield and overall behavioral repertoire, enhancing natural behavior. Classical music reduces stress levels and has similarly been associated with increased milk yield. A slow or moderate tempo (70 to 100 bpm) at frequencies below 70 dB is recommended to have this positive effect. Evidence on the impacts of other types of enrichment, such as visual stimulation through mirrors, pictures, and color lights, or the use of olfactory stimuli, is equivocal and requires further study.

Human animal relationships in Bos indicus cattle breeds addressed from a Five Domains welfare framework.

The present review has two objectives, the first is to investigate the differences in temperament between Bos indicus and Bos taurus breeds and determining the effects on production due to positive treatment and to compare this with negative HAR, by using the Five Domain Model as framework. The second objective is to discuss potential strategies to achieve better HAR when working with Bos indicus cattle. Bos indicus are more reactive and temperamental than Bos taurus cattle. When human animal relationships (HAR) are evaluated, Bos indicus cattle may react with greater intensity. They may be more likely to develop a negative emotional state, especially in extensively raised Bos indicus cattle that are handled only a few times each year. Bos indicus cattle can have positive emotional states when they have frequent positive interactions with people. Interactions with people, both positive and negative, would be in the fourth Domain of the Five Domains model. Cattle that are more reactive during handling may also have lower weight gain, even when they have abundant feed. This would be in the first Domain of Nutrition. When cattle are handled in races and corrals, injuries may be more likely to occur. Injuries and bruises would be in the third Domain of Health. Injuries could be caused by either poor handling practices by people or poor handling facilities. Yelling or electric prod use would be examples of poor HAR. Second Environmental Domain issues may be broken facilities or slick, slippery floors that are associated with falls.

Application of Infrared Thermography in the Rehabilitation of Patients in Veterinary Medicine.

Infrared Thermography (IRT) has become an assistance tool in medicine and is used to noninvasively evaluate heat elimination during and after inflammatory processes or during the recovery period. However, its application in veterinary patients undergoing physiotherapy is a field that requires deep research. This review aims to analyze the application of IRT in the monitoring of animal physiotherapy, using the thermal changes that are present in patients undergoing gait or lameness issues (e.g., inflammation, pain, increased local temperature) as a neurobiological basis. Rehabilitation techniques such as acupuncture, physical therapies, thermotherapy, photo-biomodulation, and electrostimulation have been reported to have an anti-inflammatory effect that decreases the amount of local heat production, which is heat that can be recorded with IRT. Therefore, IRT could be used as a complementary tool to evaluate the effectiveness of the therapy, and it is suggested that further studies evaluate the accuracy, sensibility, and sensitivity of IRT.

Mother-Young Bonding: Neurobiological Aspects and Maternal Biochemical Signaling in Altricial Domesticated Mammals.

Mother-young bonding is a type of early learning where the female and their newborn recognize each other through a series of neurobiological mechanisms and neurotransmitters that establish a behavioral preference for filial individuals. This process is essential to promote their welfare by providing maternal care, particularly in altricial species, animals that require extended parental care due to their limited neurodevelopment at birth. Olfactory, auditory, tactile, and visual stimuli trigger the neural integration of multimodal sensory and conditioned affective associations in mammals. This review aims to discuss the neurobiological aspects of bonding processes in altricial mammals, with a focus on the brain structures and neurotransmitters involved and how these influence the signaling during the first days of the life of newborns.

Rat Grimace Scale as a Method to Evaluate Animal Welfare, Nociception, and Quality of the Euthanasia Method of Wistar Rats.

Refinement of experimental procedures in animal research has the objective of preventing and minimizing pain/distress in animals, including the euthanasia period. This study aimed to evaluate pain associated with six methods of euthanasia in Wistar rats (injectable, inhalational, and physical), by applying the Rat Grimace Scale (RGS), comparing the scores, and determining the method with the highest score that might indicate pain for laboratory rodents. Sixty adult male and female Wistar rats were used and assigned to six treatments: pentobarbital, CO2, decapitation, isoflurane, ketamine + xylazine, and ketamine + CO2. Video recording to assess the RGS scores was performed in four events: basal: 24 h before the procedure; Ti1: three minutes before the procedure; Ti2: during the application of the euthanasia method; and Ti3: immediately after the application until LORR. The main findings of this study showed that, during Ti2, decapitation and ketamine + xylazine had the highest scores (0.6 ± 0.26 and 0.6 ± 0.16, respectively) (p < 0.0001), while at Ti3, CO2 (0.9 ± 0.18) and isoflurane (1.2 ± 0.20) recorded the highest scores (p < 0.0001). According to the present results, decapitation and ketamine + xylazine elicited short-term acute pain, possibly due to tissue damage caused by both methods (injection and guillotine). In contrast, isoflurane's RGS scores recorded during Ti3 might be associated with nociception/pain due to the pungency of the drug or to the pharmacological muscle relaxant effect of isoflurane. Further research is needed to establish a comprehensive study of pain during euthanasia, where RGS could be used minding the limitations that anesthetics might have on facial expression.

Clinical Experiences and Mechanism of Action with the Use of Oxytocin Injection at Parturition in Domestic Animals: Effect on the Myometrium and Fetuses.

Oxytocin is a key hormone for parturition and maternal traits in animals. During the peripartum period, the levels of endogenous oxytocin dictate physiological events such as myometrial contractions, prostaglandin production with the subsequent increase in oxytocin receptors, and the promotion of lactation when administered immediately after birth. While this hormone has some benefits regarding these aspects, the exogenous administration of oxytocin has been shown to have detrimental effects on the fetus, such as asphyxia, meconium staining, ruptured umbilical cords, and more dystocia cases in females. This review aims to analyze the main effects of oxytocin on myometrial activity during parturition, and its potential favorable and negative administration effects reflected in the fetus health of domestic animals. In conclusion, it is convenient to know oxytocin's different effects as well as the adequate doses and the proper moment to administrate it, as it can reduce labor duration, but it can also increase dystocia.

Uterine dynamics, blood profiles, and electronic fetal monitoring of primiparous and multiparous bitches classified according to their weight.

Perinatal mortality occurs in all species. In dogs, mortality rates have been reported to range from 5 to 35%. Electronic fetal and uterine monitoring has recently been used in domestic animals to monitor the mother and newborn before and during parturition. In this way, the fetal heart rate and uterine dynamics can be monitored. This study evaluated the uterine dynamics of bitches with different weights and parity. Ninety-six bitches and their 476 puppies were divided into four experimental groups containing 24 individuals each (12 primiparous bitches and 12 multiparous bitches), according to body weight: G1 (4-8 kg), G2 (8.1-16 kg), G3 (16.1 to 32 kg), and G4 (32.1 to 39.6 kg). The fetal heart rate decelerations (dip 2 patterns), uterine dynamics, and bitches' blood profiles were evaluated, including levels of glucose, lactate, pCO2, pO2, pH, HCO3-, and Ca++. The dam weight can affect the vitality of newborns and the uterine dynamics, with differences in the frequency, intensity, and duration of myometrial contractions. The expulsion interval between puppies was longest in primiparous bitches with low weight and shortest in multiparous bitches with high weight. The expulsion interval and the number of stillborn females were higher in primiparous bitches with high weight. Newborn male puppies were significantly heavier than newborn females.

Caffeine Administration in Piglets with Low Birthweight and Low Vitality Scores, and Its Effect on Physiological Blood Profile, Acid-Base Balance, Gas Exchange, and Infrared Thermal Response.

Intrapartum asphyxia, fetal hypoxia, and their consequences (e.g., acidosis, hypercapnia, hypoglycemia, and hypothermia) are the main factors related to physio-metabolic imbalances that increase neonatal mortality in piglets, particularly in piglets with low birthweight and low vitality scores. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of three different doses of caffeine (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg) administered orally to 480 newborn piglets with low birthweight and low vitality scores. Blood gas parameters (pH, pO2, pCO2, and HCO3-), physio-metabolic profile (Ca++, glucose, and lactate), and the thermal response assessed through infrared thermography in four thermal windows (ocular, auricular, snout, and hindlimb) and rectal temperature were evaluated during the first 24 h of life. Doses of 30 mg/kg resulted in significant differences at 24 h for all evaluated parameters, suggesting that caffeine administration improved the cardiorespiratory function and metabolic activity of piglets by reducing acidosis, restoring glycemia, and increasing surface and rectal temperature. In conclusion, caffeine at 30 mg/kg could be suggested as an appropriate dose to use in piglets with low birthweight and low vitality scores. Future research might need to study the presentation of adverse effects due to higher caffeine concentrations.

Controversial Topics in Animal Welfare in Latin America: A Focus on the Legislation Surrounding the Human-Companion Animal Relationship and Animals Used for Recreational Practices.

Animal welfare is a societally relevant issue that is globally attracting increased attention. This is in addition to the importance placed on welfare for the animals themselves. However, the content and application of laws protecting animals' welfare vary across countries. In Latin America, there are a range of common practices or activities involving certain animal species, many of which are legal, that can impair an animal's quality of life. These include the performance of aesthetic surgical procedures; bull-, cock-, and dog fighting; and the existence of circuses that exhibit animals. The extent and impact of these practices being dependent on the socioeconomic, cultural, territorial, and regulatory landscape of each country. Particularly, Ibero-American regions face welfare challenges that might be influenced by traditions and relevant legal gaps. The objective of this article is to review controversial practices carried out in companion and entertainment animals in Latin America, with a focus on legal aspects, as well as the current efforts being made to address and incorporate global welfare standards into domestic and wild animal practice and regulation.

The Challenge of Global Warming in Water Buffalo Farming: Physiological and Behavioral Aspects and Strategies to Face Heat Stress.

Water buffaloes have morphological and behavioral characteristics for efficient thermoregulation. However, their health, welfare, and productive performance can be affected by GW. The objective of this review was to analyze the adverse effects of GW on the productive behavior and health of water buffaloes. The physiological, morphological, and behavioral characteristics of the species were discussed to understand the impact of climate change and extreme meteorological events on buffaloes' thermoregulation. In addition, management strategies in buffalo farms, as well as the use of infrared thermography as a method to recognize heat stress in water buffaloes, were addressed. We concluded that heat stress causes a change in energy mobilization to restore animal homeostasis. Preventing hyperthermia limits the physiological, endocrine, and behavioral changes so that they return to thermoneutrality. The use of fans, sprinklers, foggers, and natural sources of water are appropriate additions to current buffalo facilities, and infrared thermography could be used to monitor the thermal states of water buffaloes.

The effect of birth weight and time of day on the thermal response of newborn water buffalo calves.

During the 1st days of life, water buffalo calves, especially those with low birth weight, are susceptible to hypothermic mortality due to scarce energy reserves provided by fats. This means that monitoring the thermal state of newborns is essential. The objectives of the present study were to apply infrared thermography (IRT) in 109 buffalo calves to detect differences in the surface temperatures of six thermal windows -lacrimal gland, lacrimal caruncle, periocular region, nostrils, ear canal, pelvic limbs-, and determine their association to birth weight during the first 6 days of life. The calves were divided into four categories according to their weight (Q1, 37.8-41.25 kg; Q2, 41.3-46.3 kg; Q3, 46.4-56.3 kg; Q4, 56.4-60.3 kg). The thermographic images were recorded in the morning and afternoon. Results showed that the animals in Q4 registered the highest temperatures in all the thermal windows, and that these were higher in the afternoon (p < 0.0001). When considering the thermal windows, those located in the facial region recorded the highest temperatures; in contrast, the temperatures at the pelvic limbs remained below the average values of the other windows (33.41 and 33.76°C in the morning and afternoon, respectively). According to these results, the birth weight of water buffaloes is a factor that alters their thermoregulation during the 1st days of life, a condition that can be partially compensated by colostrum intake to promote development of an efficient thermoregulatory mechanism in water buffalo calves.

Mother-young bond in non-human mammals: Neonatal communication pathways and neurobiological basis.

Mother-young bonding is a process by which the young establish social preferences for their mother. It fosters reproductive success and the survival of offspring by providing food, heat, and maternal care. This process promotes the establishment of the mother-young bond through the interaction of olfactory, auditory, tactile, visual, and thermal stimuli. The neural integration of multimodal sensory stimuli and attachment is coordinated into motor responses. The sensory and neurobiological mechanisms involved in filial recognition in precocial and altricial mammals are summarized and analyzed in this review.

Animal Abuse as an Indicator of Domestic Violence: One Health, One Welfare Approach.

For years now, the importance of animal cruelty has been gaining recognition in the industrialized cities of the West. Animal cruelty encompasses any act that causes a non-human animal unnecessary pain or suffering, including negligence, abandonment, abuse, torture, bestiality, and even theriocide. This represents a red flag for society as a whole because people who commit such acts can escalate violence and direct it to other individuals. Animal cruelty and interpersonal violence-as well as other socially undesirable conduct such as bullying, antisocial personality disorder, rape, and serial murder-are closely related, so timely diagnoses of either one can help prevent acts of aggression. It is necessary, therefore, to analyze and try to understand whether there are early indicators that may help identify potentially violent individuals. It is well known that kids from homes with actual violence in their homes show a high tendency to reproduce such behaviors with both animals and other people. In conclusion, much research and rethinking of the importance of the veterinarian in detecting animal abuse and cruelty is needed to help detect and prevent cases of interpersonal violence that may arise over time.

Dairy Buffalo Behavior: Calving, Imprinting and Allosuckling.

Maternal behavior, in water buffalo and other ruminants, is a set of patterns of a determined species, including calving, imprinting, and suckling. This behavior is mainly triggered by hormone concentration changes and their interactions with their respective receptors in the brain, particularly oxytocin. These chemical signals also influence mother-young bonding, a critical process for neonatal survival that develops during the first postpartum hours. Currently, dairy buffalo behavior during parturition has rarely been studied. For this reason, this review aims to analyze the existing scientific evidence regarding maternal behavior in water buffalo during calving. It will address the mechanisms of imprinting, maternal care, and allosuckling strategies that may influence the survival and health of calves.

Neurophysiology of Milk Ejection and Prestimulation in Dairy Buffaloes.

The present review aims to integrate the anatomical characteristics of the mammary gland and the neurophysiology of milk ejection to understand the milking capacity of the water buffalo. Since one of the main uses of this species is milk production, this article will analyze the controversies on the use of oxytocin as a stimulant during milking as well as the existing alternatives that farmers apply to promote correct stimulation during milk letdown. According to the available literature, the efficiency of the milking process, the quality of the milk, and the health of the animals are elements that require the consideration of species-specific characteristics to enhance the performance of buffaloes. The incorporation of technological innovations and competitive strategies could contribute to a better understanding of water buffalo in the milk industry.

The Welfare of Fighting Dogs: Wounds, Neurobiology of Pain, Legal Aspects and the Potential Role of the Veterinary Profession.

Throughout history it has been common to practice activities which significantly impact on animal welfare. Animal fighting, including dogfighting, is a prime example where animals often require veterinary care, either to treat wounds and fractures or to manage pain associated with tissue and where death may even result. Amongst the detrimental health effects arising are the sensory alterations that these injuries cause, which not only include acute or chronic pain but can also trigger a greater sensitivity to other harmful (hyperalgesia) or even innocuous stimuli (allodynia). These neurobiological aspects are often ignored and the erroneous assumption made that the breeds engaged in organized fighting have a high pain threshold or, at least, they present reduced or delayed responses to painful stimuli. However, it is now widely recognized that the damage these dogs suffer is not only physical but psychological, emotional, and sensory. Due to the impact fighting has on canine welfare, it is necessary to propose solution strategies, especially educational ones, i.e., educating people and training veterinarians, the latter potentially playing a key role in alerting people to all dog welfare issues. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe the risk factors associated with dogfighting generally (dog temperament, age, sex, nutrition, testosterone levels, environment, isolation conditions, socialization, education, or training). A neurobiological approach to this topic is taken to discuss the impact on dog pain and emotion. Finally, a general discussion of the format of guidelines and laws that seek to sanction them is presented. The role that veterinarians can play in advancing dog welfare, rehabilitating dogs, and educating the public is also considered.

The neurobiology of pain and facial movements in rodents: Clinical applications and current research.

One of the most controversial aspects of the use of animals in science is the production of pain. Pain is a central ethical concern. The activation of neural pathways involved in the pain response has physiological, endocrine, and behavioral consequences, that can affect both the health and welfare of the animals, as well as the validity of research. The strategy to prevent these consequences requires understanding of the nociception process, pain itself, and how assessment can be performed using validated, non-invasive methods. The study of facial expressions related to pain has undergone considerable study with the finding that certain movements of the facial muscles (called facial action units) are associated with the presence and intensity of pain. This review, focused on rodents, discusses the neurobiology of facial expressions, clinical applications, and current research designed to better understand pain and the nociceptive pathway as a strategy for implementing refinement in biomedical research.