Occurrence and exposure assessment of glyphosate in the environment and its impact on human beings.

Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum and one of the most widely used herbicides in the world, which has led to its high environmental dissemination. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer stated that glyphosate was a probable human carcinogen. Since then, several studies have provided new data about the environmental exposure of glyphosate and its consequences on human health. Thus, the carcinogenic effects of glyphosate are still under debate. This work aimed to review glyphosate occurrence and exposure since 2015 up to date, considering studies associated with either environmental or occupational exposure and the epidemiological assessment of cancer risk in humans. These articles showed that herbicide residues were detectable in all spheres of the earth and studies on the population showed an increase in the concentration of glyphosate in biofluids, both in the general population and in the occupationally exposed population. However, the epidemiological studies under review provided limited evidence for the carcinogenicity of glyphosate, which was consistent with the International Agency for Research on Cancer classification as a probable carcinogen.

Ionizing Radiation and Estrogen Affecting Growth Factor Genes in an Experimental Breast Cancer Model.

Genes associated with growth factors were previously analyzed in a radiation- and estrogen-induced experimental breast cancer model. Such in vitro experimental breast cancer model was developed by exposure of the immortalized human breast epithelial cell line, MCF-10F, to low doses of high linear energy transfer (LET) α particle radiation (150 keV/µm) and subsequent growth in the presence or absence of 17ß-estradiol. The MCF-10F cell line was analyzed in different stages of transformation after being irradiated with either a single 60 cGy dose or 60/60 cGy doses of alpha particles. In the present report, the profiling of differentially expressed genes associated with growth factors was analyzed in their relationship with clinical parameters. Thus, the results indicated that Fibroblast growth factor2 gene expression levels were higher in cells transformed by radiation or in the presence of ionizing radiation; whereas the fibroblast growth factor-binding protein 1gene expression was higher in the tumor cell line derived from this model. Such expressions were coincident with higher values in normal than malignant tissues and with estrogen receptor (ER) negative samples for both gene types. The results also showed that transforming growth factor alpha gene expression was higher in the tumor cell line than the tumorigenic A5 and the transformed A3 cell line, whereas the transforming growth factor beta receptor 3 gene expression was higher in A3 and A5 than in Tumor2 cell lines and the untreated controls and the E cell lines. Such gene expression was accompanied by results indicating negative and positive receptors for transforming growth factor alpha and the transforming growth factor beta receptor 3, respectively. Such expressions were low in malignant tissues when compared with benign ones. Furthermore, Fibroblast growth factor2, the fibroblast growth factor-binding protein 1, transforming growth factor alpha, the transforming growth factor beta receptor 3, and the insulin growth factor receptor gene expressions were found to be present in all BRCA patients that are BRCA-Basal, BRCA-LumA, and BRCA-LumB, except in BRCA-Her2 patients. The results also indicated that the insulin growth factor receptor gene expression was higher in the tumor cell line Tumor2 than in Alpha3 cells transformed by ionizing radiation only; then, the insulin growth factor receptor was higher in the A5 than E cell line. The insulin growth factor receptor gene expression was higher in breast cancer than in normal tissues in breast cancer patients. Furthermore, Fibroblast growth factor2, the fibroblast growth factor-binding protein 1, transforming growth factor alpha, the transforming growth factor beta receptor 3, and the insulin growth factor receptor gene expression levels were in stages 3 and 4 of breast cancer patients. It can be concluded that, by using gene technology and molecular information, it is possible to improve therapy and reduce the side effects of therapeutic radiation use. Knowing the different genes involved in breast cancer will make possible the improvement of clinical chemotherapy.

Cell Adhesion Molecules Affected by Ionizing Radiation and Estrogen in an Experimental Breast Cancer Model.

Cancer develops in a multi-step process where environmental carcinogenic exposure is a primary etiological component, and where cell-cell communication governs the biological activities of tissues. Identifying the molecular genes that regulate this process is essential to targeting metastatic breast cancer. Ionizing radiation can modify and damage DNA, RNA, and cell membrane components such as lipids and proteins by direct ionization. Comparing differential gene expression can help to determine the effect of radiation and estrogens on cell adhesion. An in vitro experimental breast cancer model was developed by exposure of the immortalized human breast epithelial cell line MCF-10F to low doses of high linear energy transfer α particle radiation and subsequent growth in the presence of 17ß-estradiol. The MCF-10F cell line was analyzed in different stages of transformation that showed gradual phenotypic changes including altered morphology, increase in cell proliferation relative to the control, anchorage-independent growth, and invasive capability before becoming tumorigenic in nude mice. This model was used to determine genes associated with cell adhesion and communication such as E-cadherin, the desmocollin 3, the gap junction protein alpha 1, the Integrin alpha 6, the Integrin beta 6, the Keratin 14, Keratin 16, Keratin 17, Keratin 6B, and the laminin beta 3. Results indicated that most genes had greater expression in the tumorigenic cell line Tumor2 derived from the athymic animal than the Alpha3, a non-tumorigenic cell line exposed only to radiation, indicating that altered expression levels of adhesion molecules depended on estrogen. There is a significant need for experimental model systems that facilitate the study of cell plasticity to assess the importance of estrogens in modulating the biology of cancer cells.

Mfn2 downregulation in excitotoxicity causes mitochondrial dysfunction and delayed neuronal death.

Mitochondrial fusion and fission is a dynamic process critical for the maintenance of mitochondrial function and cell viability. During excitotoxicity neuronal mitochondria are fragmented, but the mechanism underlying this process is poorly understood. Here, we show that Mfn2 is the only member of the mitochondrial fusion/fission machinery whose expression is reduced in in vitro and in vivo models of excitotoxicity. Whereas in cortical primary cultures, Drp1 recruitment to mitochondria plays a primordial role in mitochondrial fragmentation in an early phase that can be reversed once the insult has ceased, Mfn2 downregulation intervenes in a delayed mitochondrial fragmentation phase that progresses even when the insult has ceased. Downregulation of Mfn2 causes mitochondrial dysfunction, altered calcium homeostasis, and enhanced Bax translocation to mitochondria, resulting in delayed neuronal death. We found that transcription factor MEF2 regulates basal Mfn2 expression in neurons and that excitotoxicity-dependent degradation of MEF2 causes Mfn2 downregulation. Thus, Mfn2 reduction is a late event in excitotoxicity and its targeting may help to reduce excitotoxic damage and increase the currently short therapeutic window in stroke.

Local control of nuclear calcium signaling in cardiac myocytes by perinuclear microdomains of sarcolemmal insulin-like growth factor 1 receptors.

RATIONALE: The ability of a cell to independently regulate nuclear and cytosolic Ca(2+) signaling is currently attributed to the differential distribution of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor channel isoforms in the nucleoplasmic versus the endoplasmic reticulum. In cardiac myocytes, T-tubules confer the necessary compartmentation of Ca(2+) signals, which allows sarcomere contraction in response to plasma membrane depolarization, but whether there is a similar structure tunneling extracellular stimulation to control nuclear Ca(2+) signals locally has not been explored. OBJECTIVE: To study the role of perinuclear sarcolemma in selective nuclear Ca(2+) signaling. METHODS AND RESULTS: We report here that insulin-like growth factor 1 triggers a fast and independent nuclear Ca(2+) signal in neonatal rat cardiac myocytes, human embryonic cardiac myocytes, and adult rat cardiac myocytes. This fast and localized response is achieved by activation of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor signaling complexes present in perinuclear invaginations of the plasma membrane. The perinuclear insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor pool connects extracellular stimulation to local activation of nuclear Ca(2+) signaling and transcriptional upregulation through the perinuclear hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate production, nuclear Ca(2+) release, and activation of the transcription factor myocyte-enhancing factor 2C. Genetically engineered Ca(2+) buffers--parvalbumin--with cytosolic or nuclear localization demonstrated that the nuclear Ca(2+) handling system is physically and functionally segregated from the cytosolic Ca(2+) signaling machinery. CONCLUSIONS: These data reveal the existence of an inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-dependent nuclear Ca(2+) toolkit located in direct apposition to the cell surface, which allows the local control of rapid and independent activation of nuclear Ca(2+) signaling in response to an extracellular ligand.

Human papillomavirus infection in oral squamous cell carcinomas from Chilean patients.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the causal agent of cervical, anogenital and a subset of oropharyngeal carcinomas. In addition, the role of HPV in oral carcinogenesis has been suggested, although the findings are inconclusive. In this study, using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genotyping by specific PCR and DNA sequencing, we analyzed the HPV presence in 80 oral squamous cell carcinomas (OSCCs) from Chilean subjects. In addition, we determined the expression of p16, p53, pRb and Ki-67 using immunohistochemistry (IHC). The CDKN2A (p16) promoter methylation was evaluated using methylation-specific PCR (MSP). HPV sequences were found in 9/80 (11%) OSCCs. Non-statistically significant association with p53, pRb, Ki-67 and p16 levels were found (p=0.77; 0.29; 0.83; 0.21, respectively). HPV-16 and 18 were the most prevalent HPV genotypes in 8/9 (89%) OSCCs. In addition, CDKN2A (p16) was methylated in 39% of OSCCs. No association with HPV presence (p=0.917) was found. These results suggest that HPV positive OSCCs are entities that do not resemble the molecular alterations of HPV-associated tumors in a Chilean population. More studies are warranted to determine the role of HPV in OSCCs.

DCTPP1 Expression as a Predictor of Chemotherapy Response in Luminal A Breast Cancer Patients.

Breast cancer (BRCA) remains a significant global health challenge due to its prevalence and lethality, exacerbated by the development of resistance to conventional therapies. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms underpinning chemoresistance is crucial for improving therapeutic outcomes. Human deoxycytidine triphosphate pyrophosphatase 1 (DCTPP1) has emerged as a key player in various cancers, including BRCA. DCTPP1, involved in nucleotide metabolism and maintenance of genomic stability, has been linked to cancer cell proliferation, survival, and drug resistance. This study evaluates the role of DCTPP1 in BRCA prognosis and chemotherapy response. Data from the Cancer Genome Atlas Program (TCGA), Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx), and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) repositories, analyzed using GEPIA and Kaplan-Meier Plotter, indicate that high DCTPP1 expression correlates with poorer overall survival and increased resistance to chemotherapy in BRCA patients. Further analysis reveals that DCTPP1 gene expression is up-regulated in non-responders to chemotherapy, particularly in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive, luminal A subtype patients, with significant predictive power. Additionally, in vitro studies show that DCTPP1 gene expression increases in response to 5-fluorouracil and doxorubicin treatments in luminal A BRCA cell lines, suggesting a hypothetical role in chemoresistance. These findings highlight DCTPP1 as a potential biomarker for predicting chemotherapy response and as a therapeutic target to enhance chemotherapy efficacy in BRCA patients.

Effects of Curcumin and Estrogen Receptor Alpha in Luminal Breast Cancer Cells.

This work examined the potential benefit of curcumin in breast cancer patients as a supplementary drug in ER-positive cancers. The results indicated that in the MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line, E2 and curcumin decreased cell proliferation and the colony-forming capacity and down-regulated protein expression as well as important molecules associated with cell proliferation, such as PCNA and estrogen receptor alpha; genes associated with the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, such as ß-catenin, Vimentin, and E-cadherin; and molecules associated with apoptosis. Clinical studies in bioinformatics have indicated a positive correlation between ESR1 and either CCND1 or BCL2 gene expression in all breast cancer patients. Thus, curcumin could become a potential natural adjuvant treatment for patients with estrogen receptor alpha-positive breast cancer and those with resistance or a poor response to endocrine therapy since the reactivation of estrogen receptor alpha is inevitable.

Acetylcholine, Another Factor in Breast Cancer.

Acetylcholine (ACh) is a neurotransmitter that regulates multiple functions in the nervous system, and emerging evidence indicates that it could play a role in cancer progression. However, this function is controversial. Previously, we showed that organophosphorus pesticides decreased the levels of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase in vivo, increasing ACh serum levels and the formation of tumors in the mammary glands of rats. Furthermore, we showed that ACh exposure in breast cancer cell lines induced overexpression of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα), a key protein described as the master regulator in breast cancer. Therefore, here, we hypothesize that ACh alters the ERα activity through a ligand-independent mechanism. The results here reveal that the physiological concentration of ACh leads to the release of Ca+2 and the activity of MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt pathways. These changes are associated with an induction of p-ERα and its recruitment to the nucleus. However, ACh fails to induce overexpression of estrogen-responsive genes, suggesting a different activation mechanism than that of 17ß-estradiol. Finally, ACh promotes the viability of breast cancer cell lines in an ERα-dependent manner and induces the overexpression of some EMT markers. In summary, our results show that ACh promotes breast cancer cell proliferation and ERα activity, possibly in a ligand-independent manner, suggesting its putative role in breast cancer progression.

Downregulation of Glycine N-Acyltransferase in Kidney Renal Clear Cell Carcinoma: A Bioinformatic-Based Screening.

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (KIRC) is the most common subtype of renal cell carcinoma (RCC). This form of cancer is characterized by resistance to traditional therapies and an increased likelihood of metastasis. A major factor contributing to the pathogenesis of KIRC is the alteration of metabolic pathways. As kidney cancer is increasingly considered a metabolic disease, there is a growing need to understand the enzymes involved in the regulation of metabolism in tumorigenic cells. In this context, our research focused on glycine N-acyltransferase (GLYAT), an enzyme known to play a role in various metabolic diseases and cancer. Here, through a bioinformatic analysis of public databases, we performed a characterization of GLYAT expression levels in KIRC cases. Our goal is to evaluate whether GLYAT could serve as a compelling candidate for an in-depth study, given its pivotal role in metabolic regulation and previously established links to other malignancies. The analysis showed a marked decrease in GLYAT expression in all stages and grades of KIRC, regardless of mutation rates, suggesting an alternative mechanism of regulation along the tumor development. Additionally, we observed a hypomethylation in the GLYAT promoter region and a negative correlation between the expression of the GLYAT and the levels of cancer-associated fibroblasts. Finally, the data show a correlation between higher levels of GLYAT expression and better patient prognosis. In conclusion, this article underscores the potential of GLYAT as a diagnostic and prognostic marker in KIRC.

The Role of MicroRNAs in Breast Cancer and the Challenges of Their Clinical Application.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) constitute a subclass of non-coding RNAs that exert substantial influence on gene-expression regulation. Their tightly controlled expression plays a pivotal role in various cellular processes, while their dysregulation has been implicated in numerous pathological conditions, including cancer. Among cancers affecting women, breast cancer (BC) is the most prevalent malignant tumor. Extensive investigations have demonstrated distinct expression patterns of miRNAs in normal and malignant breast cells. Consequently, these findings have prompted research efforts towards leveraging miRNAs as diagnostic tools and the development of therapeutic strategies. The aim of this review is to describe the role of miRNAs in BC. We discuss the identification of oncogenic, tumor suppressor and metastatic miRNAs among BC cells, and their impact on tumor progression. We describe the potential of miRNAs as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for BC, as well as their role as promising therapeutic targets. Finally, we evaluate the current use of artificial intelligence tools for miRNA analysis and the challenges faced by these new biomedical approaches in its clinical application. The insights presented in this review underscore the promising prospects of utilizing miRNAs as innovative diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic tools for the management of BC.

Glyphosate mimics 17ß-estradiol effects promoting estrogen receptor alpha activity in breast cancer cells.

Glyphosate, the active ingredient in several broad-spectrum herbicide formulations, has been validated and widely used throughout the world. Recent reports have questioned its safety, showing that glyphosate may act as an endocrine disruptor by promoting estrogenic activity. However, the molecular mechanism involved in this phenomenon remains unclear. Therefore, here we aimed to elucidate the mechanism by which glyphosate induces estrogenic activity using estrogen-sensitive breast cancer cell line models. Our results show that glyphosate mimics the cell effects of 17ß-estradiol (E2), promoting estrogen receptor α (ERα) phosphorylation, its degradation, and transcriptional activity at high concentrations. The molecular mechanism seems involved in the ERα ligand-binding domain (LBD). Molecular simulations suggest a plausible interaction between glyphosate and the LBD through a coordinated complex involving divalent cations such as Zn (II). In addition, glyphosate exposure alters the level of Cyclin-dependent kinase 7 that contribute to ERα phosphorylation. Finally, glyphosate increases cell proliferation rate and levels of cell cycle regulators, accompanied by an increase in anchorage-independent growth capacity. These findings suggest that glyphosate at high concentrations, induces estrogen-like effects through an ERα ligand binding site-dependent mechanism, leading to cellular responses resulting from a complex interplay of genomic and non-genomic events.

Muscarinic Receptors Associated with Cancer.

Cancer has been considered the pathology of the century and factors such as the environment may play an important etiological role. The ability of muscarinic agonists to stimulate growth and muscarinic receptor antagonists to inhibit tumor growth has been demonstrated for breast, melanoma, lung, gastric, colon, pancreatic, ovarian, prostate, and brain cancer. This work aimed to study the correlation between epidermal growth factor receptors and cholinergic muscarinic receptors, the survival differences adjusted by the stage clinical factor, and the association between gene expression and immune infiltration level in breast, lung, stomach, colon, liver, prostate, and glioblastoma human cancers. Thus, targeting cholinergic muscarinic receptors appears to be an attractive therapeutic alternative due to the complex signaling pathways involved.

Epstein-Barr Virus Infection in Lung Cancer: Insights and Perspectives.

Lung cancer (LC) is the leading cause of cancer death worldwide. Tobacco smoke is the most frequent risk factor etiologically associated with LC, although exposures to other environmental factors such as arsenic, radon or asbestos are also involved. Additionally, the involvement of some viral infections such as high-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPVs), Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), Jaagsiekte Sheep Retrovirus (JSRV), John Cunningham Virus (JCV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has been suggested in LC, though an etiological relationship has not yet been established. EBV is a ubiquitous gamma herpesvirus causing persistent infections and some lymphoid and epithelial tumors. Since EBV is heterogeneously detected in LCs from different parts of the world, in this review we address the epidemiological and experimental evidence of a potential role of EBV. Considering this evidence, we propose mechanisms potentially involved in EBV-associated lung carcinogenesis. Additional studies are warranted to dissect the role of EBV in this very frequent malignancy.

Characterization of High-Risk HPV/EBV Co-Presence in Pre-Malignant Cervical Lesions and Squamous Cell Carcinomas.

High-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPVs) are the etiological agents of cervical cancer. However, a low proportion of HR-HPV-infected women finally develop this cancer, which suggests the involvement of additional cofactors. Epstein−Barr virus (EBV) has been detected in cervical squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) as well as in low- (LSIL) and high-grade (HSIL) squamous intraepithelial lesions, although its role is unknown. In this study, we characterized HR-HPV/EBV co-presence and viral gene expression in LSIL (n = 22), HSIL (n = 52), and SCC (n = 19) from Chilean women. Additionally, phenotypic changes were evaluated in cervical cancer cells ectopically expressing BamHI-A Rightward Frame 1 (BARF1). BARF1 is a lytic gene also expressed in EBV-positive epithelial tumors during the EBV latency program. HPV was detected in 6/22 (27.3%) LSIL, 38/52 (73.1%) HSIL, and 15/19 (78.9%) SCC cases (p < 0.001). On the other hand, EBV was detected in 16/22 (72.7%) LSIL, 27/52 (51.9%) HSIL, and 13/19 (68.4%) SCC cases (p = 0.177). HR-HPV/EBV co-presence was detected in 3/22 (13.6%) LSIL, 17/52 (32.7%) HSIL, and 11/19 (57.9%) SCC cases (p = 0.020). Additionally, BARF1 transcripts were detected in 37/55 (67.3%) of EBV positive cases and in 19/30 (63.3%) of HR-HPV/EBV positive cases. Increased proliferation, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) was observed in cervical cancer cells expressing BARF1. Thus, both EBV and BARF1 transcripts are detected in low- and high-grade cervical lesions as well as in cervical carcinomas. In addition, BARF1 can modulate the tumor behavior in cervical cancer cells, suggesting a role in increasing tumor aggressiveness.

Glyphosate and the key characteristics of an endocrine disruptor: A review.

Glyphosate is a large-spectrum herbicide that was introduced on the market in 1974. Due to its important impact on the crop industry, it has been significantly diversified and expanded being considered the most successful herbicide in history. Currently, its massive use has led to a wide environmental diffusion and its human consumption through food products has made possible to detect it in urine, serum, and breast milk samples. Nevertheless, recent studies have questioned its safety and international agencies have conflicting opinions about its effects on human health, mainly as an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) and its carcinogenic capacity. Here, we conduct a comprehensive review where we describe the most important findings of the glyphosate effects in the endocrine system and asses the mechanistic evidence to classify it as an EDC. We use as guideline the ten key characteristics (KCs) of EDC proposed in the expert consensus statement published in 2020 (La Merrill et al., 2020) and discuss the scopes of some epidemiological studies for the evaluation of glyphosate as possible EDC. We conclude that glyphosate satisfies at least 8 KCs of an EDC, however, prospective cohort studies are still needed to elucidate the real effects in the human endocrine system.

Competence in metered-dose inhaler technique among healthcare workers of three general hospitals in Mexico: it is not good after all these years.

INTRODUCTION: Inhaled medication is the cornerstone of pharmacological treatment for chronic respiratory diseases. Therefore, it is important to use a metered-dose inhaler (MDI) correctly to get the appropriate dosage and benefit from the drug. Health-care workers (HCW) are responsible for teaching the correct MDI technique. Unfortunately, numerous studies consistently show that HCW have poor MDI technique. This study aimed to evaluate the current knowledge of MDI technique in HCW working in three general hospitals. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A hospital-based, cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted in three general hospitals in Aguascalientes, México. Three surveyors simultaneously scored through a 14 dichotomic questions list as bad, regular, good, and very good MDI technique. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 16. Statistical analyses were performed using chi-square test or unpaired t-tests. An analysis of one-way ANOVA was used for comparison of three independent general hospitals. Values of p < 0.05 were considered to indicate statistical significance. RESULTS: A total of 244 HCWs were surveyed: 78.3% were nurses whereas 21.3% were physicians. The inter-observer concor-dance analysis among observers was 0.97. We observed that 32.4% (79) performed a bad technique, 51.6% (126) a regular technique, 13.5% (33) a good one, and 2.5% HCW (6) a very good technique. No difference between gender, labor category, schedule, service, age, seniority, and education degree between the three hospitals was observed. The most common mistakes were "insufficient expiration prior to activation of the device", and "the distance the inhaler was placed for inhalation" (83 and 84% respectively). CONCLUSION: We observed that a high percentage of HCW do not follow the MDI technique correctly, being this percentage even higher than the reported in other studies. These observations suggest the urgent need to establish frequent training programs for the correct use of MDI.

Renal Medullary Carcinoma in an Adolescent With Unknown Sickle Cell Trait.

Renal medullary carcinoma (RMC) is an aggressive and rare malignancy that usually presents in adolescents and young adults with sickle cell disease. Herein, we describe a case of a white male with an unknown sickle cell trait, who presented with left iliac fossa pain, without any other finding that suggested renal neoplasia. Imaging findings were a renal mass of central location with caliectasis, renal hilar adenopathy, and paraaortic lymphadenopathy. Biopsy confirmed an RMC diagnosis. RMC diagnosis requires clinical suspicion in sickle cell patients who present with pain and hematuria. Imaging shows a central mass, with an infiltrative appearance, frequently associated with calyx's dilation and lymphadenopathy. Prognosis is poor in spite of the treatment.

Human Papillomavirus in Breast Carcinogenesis: A Passenger, a Cofactor, or a Causal Agent?

Breast cancer (BC) is the most commonly diagnosed malignancy in women worldwide as well as the leading cause of cancer-related death in this gender. Studies have identified that human papillomavirus (HPV) is a potential risk factor for BC development. While vaccines that protect against oncogenic HPVs infection have been commercially available, global disparities persist due to their high cost. Interestingly, numerous authors have detected an increased high risk (HR)-HPV infection in BC specimens when compared with non-tumor tissues. Therefore, it was suggested that HR-HPV infection could play a role in breast carcinogenesis in a subset of cases. Additional epidemiological and experimental evidence is still needed regarding the role of HR-HPV infection in the development and progression of BC.

Gene Signatures Induced by Ionizing Radiation as Prognostic Tools in an In Vitro Experimental Breast Cancer Model.

This study aimed to analyze the expression of genes involved in radiation, using an Affymetrix system with an in vitro experimental breast cancer model developed by the combined treatment of low doses of high linear energy transfer (LET) radiation α particle radiation and estrogen yielding different stages in a malignantly transformed breast cancer cell model called Alpha model. Altered expression of different molecules was detected in the non-tumorigenic Alpha3, a malignant cell line transformed only by radiation and originally derived from the parental MCF-10F human cell line; that was compared with the Alpha 5 cell line, another cell line exposed to radiation and subsequently grown in the presence 17ß-estradiol. This Alpha5, a tumorigenic cell line, originated the Tumor2 cell line. It can be summarized that the Alpha 3 cell line was characterized by greater gene expression of ATM and IL7R than control, Alpha5, and Tumor2 cell lines, it presented higher selenoprotein gene expression than control and Tumor2; epsin 3 gene expression was higher than control; stefin A gene expression was higher than Alpha5; and metallothionein was higher than control and Tumor2 cell line. Therefore, radiation, independently of estrogen, induced increased ATM, IL7R, selenoprotein, GABA receptor, epsin, stefin, and metallothioneins gene expression in comparison with the control. Results showed important findings of genes involved in cancers of the breast, lung, nervous system, and others. Most genes analyzed in these studies can be used for new prognostic tools and future therapies since they affect cancer progression and metastasis. Most of all, it was revealed that in the Alpha model, a breast cancer model developed by the authors, the cell line transformed only by radiation, independently of estrogen, was characterized by greater gene expression than other cell lines. Understanding the effect of radiotherapy in different cells will help us improve the clinical outcome of radiotherapies. Thus, gene signature has been demonstrated to be specific to tumor types, hence cell-dependency must be considered in future treatment planning. Molecular and clinical features affect the results of radiotherapy. Thus, using gene technology and molecular information is possible to improve therapies and reduction of side effects while providing new insights into breast cancer-related fields.