[Increase of regulatory T cells in the lymph node of cathepsin L mutant mice]. / Aumento de linfocitos T regulatorios en los ganglios linfoides de ratones mutantes para catepsina L.

Regulatory CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ T cells (Treg) have been implicated in different pathologies including cancer, infections and autoimmune diseases and in the rejection of allogeneic organ transplantation. Thus, modulation of Treg activity has a great potential in the treatment of these pathologies. Herein, we evaluated the influence of cathepsin L (CTSL) on Treg homeostasis. CTSL mutant mice (CTSLnkt/nkt) showed a decrease in the absolute number of thymic Treg cells. In contrast, the absolute number of lymph node Treg cells and their frequency within CD4+ cells were increased. The absence of CTSL activity in CD4+ T cells -and not in their environment- increased the proliferation rate of lymph node CD4+ T cells. Treg and T CD4+ conventional (CD4+CD25-Foxp3-) cells from mutant mice showed similar increases in their proliferative levels as compared with control mice, suggesting that although proliferation contributes to the increases in their number, the augmentation in the frequency of Treg cells is not only associated to increases in proliferation. Furthermore, the Treg apoptosis rate was not decreased in the lymph node of CTSLnkt/nkt mice. Taking into account that the daily CD4+ thymic production is diminished in mutant mice, our results suggest that peripheral Treg increases are probably not the result of increased thymic output and raise the possibility that a conversion to Treg phenotype would be favored in the CD4+ T cells peripheral pool of CTSL mutant mice.

[Regulatory T cell depletion increases the number of CD8 cells during mouse mammary tumor virus infection]. / La depleción de las células T regulatorias aumenta el número de las células CD8 durante la infección con el virus del tumor mamario murino.

Mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) is a milk-borne betaretrovirus that has developed strategies to exploit and subvert the host immune system. We have shown in a natural model of MMTV infection that the virus causes early and progressive increases in superantigen (Sag)-specific CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Treg) in Peyer's patches. Herein, we evaluated whether the depletion of Treg cells affects the CD8+ population during milk-borne MMTV infection. At day 6 of infection, the depletion of Treg cells increased the percentage and absolute number of CD8+ cells in lymph nodes as well as the mean intensity fluorescence of the CD44 activation marker. The absolute number of CD8+ cells was increased in cells bearing both Sag reactive and non-reactive TCR Vß chains. We have previously shown that regulatory T cell depletion at day 6 of infection decrease viral load. Results reported herein suggest that at least after day 6 of MMTV infection Treg cells play an inhibiting role on CD8 antiviral response.

Increases in IgA(+) B cells in Peyer's patches during milk-borne mouse mammary tumor virus infection are influenced by Toll-like receptor 4 and are completely dependent on the superantigen response.

Mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) is a milk-borne betaretrovirus that has developed strategies to exploit and subvert the host immune system. Although mammary glands are the final target of infection, Peyer's patches (PP) are the entry site of the virus. Herein, we show that the infection induces increases in the number of PP IgA(+) B cells and higher expression of the α circular transcript, which is a specific marker of the switch to IgA. In addition, IgA(+) B-cell increases correlated with higher levels of cytokines related to IgA class switching, such as interleukin (IL)-5 and IL-6. Of interest, the increases in IgA(+) B cells were lower in Toll-like receptor 4-deficient mice and were completely dependent on the presence of superantigen-reactive T cells. Our results point to a novel mechanism involved in MMTV infection and suggest that IgA(+) B cells may play an important role in carrying the virus to the mammary glands.

Early increases in superantigen-specific Foxp3+ regulatory T cells during mouse mammary tumor virus infection.

Mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) is a milk-borne betaretrovirus that has developed strategies to exploit and subvert the host immune system. Here, we show in a natural model of MMTV infection that the virus causes early and progressive increases in superantigen (SAg)-specific Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (T(reg)) in Peyer's patches (PP). These increases were shown to be dependent on the presence of dendritic cells. CD4(+) CD25(+) T cells from the PP of infected mice preferentially suppress the proliferative response of T cells to SAg-expressing antigen-presenting cells ex vivo. We investigated the influence of the depletion of CD25(+) cells at different stages of the infection. When CD25(+) cells were depleted before MMTV infection, an increase in the number of PP SAg-cognate Foxp3(-) T cells was found at day 6 of infection. Since the SAg response is associated with viral amplification, the possibility exists that T(reg) cells attenuate the increase in viral load at the beginning of the infection. In contrast, depletion of CD25(+) cells once the initial SAg response has developed caused a lower viral load, suggesting that at later stages T(reg) cells may favor viral persistence. Thus, our results indicated that T(reg) cells play an important and complex role during MMTV infection.

Characterization of viral particles isolated from primary cultures of human breast cancer cells.

The association of human breast cancer with sequences similar to the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) has been shown, but convincing evidence for the presence of viral particles in breast tumors has been lacking. We have described the complete proviral structure of a retrovirus in human breast cancer. This provirus, designated as human mammary tumor virus (HMTV), was 95% homologous to MMTV and revealed features of a replication-competent virus. We have therefore investigated the production of viral particles in primary cultures of human breast cancer (MSSM). Cells isolated from ascites or pleural effusions of patients with metastatic breast cancer contained viral sequences in their DNA, expressed Env protein, and showed retroviral particles by electron microscopy. Viral particles from culture media exhibited morphologic features of beta-retroviruses sedimenting at buoyant densities of 1.12 to 1.18 g/mL in sucrose gradients and showed reverse transcriptase activity. cDNA sequences from virion RNA were synthesized, amplified, and sequenced and all the virion genes were detected and 70% of the virion RNA was sequenced. The sequence homologies were, respectively, 85% to 95% compared with the MMTV and HMTV proviruses we have previously described. These results clearly show that breast cancer cells in primary cultures produced HMTV viral particles that are similar to the mouse virus and which may play a role in human breast cancer pathogenesis.

Endogenous glucocorticoids cause thymus atrophy but are protective during acute Trypanosoma cruzi infection.

The cytokine-mediated stimulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is relevant for survival during bacterial endotoxemia and certain viral infections. However, only limited information is available regarding the effects of endogenous glucocorticoids on parasite diseases. We have studied this issue using, as a model, C57Bl/6 and Balb/c mice infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, the causal agent of Chagas' disease. These two mouse strains differ in the susceptibility to infection with the parasite. An intense stimulation of the HPA-axis was observed 3 weeks after infection in both strains, but glucocorticoid levels were already increased two- to threefold in the less susceptible Balb/c strain during the first week. Blockade of glucocorticoid receptors with the glucocorticoid antagonist RU486, starting on day 10 after infection, partially reversed the thymic atrophy and decreased the number of CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes without affecting parasitemia and the number of inflammatory foci in the heart. However, tumor necrosis factor-alpha blood levels were increased in infected mice of both strains treated with RU486. Furthermore, the blockade of glucocorticoid receptors accelerated death in C57Bl/6J mice and increased lethality to 100% in Balb/c mice. The results obtained represent the first evidence that an endocrine host response that is coupled to the immune process can strongly affect the course of a parasite infection.

A B-Cell Superantigen Induces the Apoptosis of Murine and Human Malignant B Cells.

B-cell superantigens (Sags) bind to conserved sites of the VH or VL regions of immunoglobulin molecules outside their complementarity-determining regions causing the apoptosis of normal cognate B cells. No attempts to investigate whether B-cell Sags are able to induce the apoptosis of cognate malignant B cells were reported. In the present study we show that protein L (PpL), secreted by Finegoldia magna, a B-cell Sag which interacts with κ+ bearing cells, induces the apoptosis of murine and human κ+ lymphoma B cells both in vitro and in vivo. Apoptosis was not altered by caspase-8 inhibitor. No alterations in the levels of Bid, Fas and Fas-L were found suggesting that PpL does not activate the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis. The involvement of the intrinsic pathway was clearly indicated by: i) alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) both in murine and human lymphoma cells exposed to PpL; ii) decreased levels of apoptosis in the presence of caspase-9 inhibitor; iii) significant increases of Bim and Bax protein levels and downregulation of Bcl-2; iv) the translocation from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria of Bax and Bim pro-apoptotic proteins and its inhibition by caspase-9 inhibitor but not by caspase-8 inhibitor and v) the translocation of Bcl-2 protein from the mitochondria to the cytosol and its inhibition by caspase-9 inhibitor but not by caspase-8 inhibitor. The possibility of a therapeutic use of Sags in lymphoma/leukemia B cell malignancies is discussed.

Thymocyte depletion during acute Trypanosoma cruzi infection in C57BL/6 mice is partly reverted by lipopolysaccharide pretreatment.

Infection with Trypanosoma cruzi in C57BL/6 mice leads to a progressive fatal disease accompanied by thymocyte depletion, which is not related with a higher parasite burden but with increased serum levels of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF- alpha). Because this situation may result from an excessive inflammatory syndrome, mice were now given anti-TNF-alpha mAbs throughout their acute infection, or subjected to a LPS desensitization protocol before parasite challenge. Treatment with anti-TNF-alpha mAbs failed to ameliorate thymocyte depletion but shortened survival time and increased parasite load. Pretreatment with LPS (desensitization followed by a sublethal LPS dose) prolonged survival time with a trend to reduce parasitemias and TNF-alpha serum concentrations. Given that pentoxifylline (PTx) interferes with in vitro LPS tolerance, experiments by administering PTx in combination with the tolerance-inducing LPS doses were also performed. Such schedule significantly reduced mortality, TNF-alpha and IL-6 serum concentrations, and CD4+ CD8+ thymocyte loss. LPS pretreatment allowed a better infection control and protected from the accompanying tissue damage.

B-cell lymphopoiesis is regulated by cathepsin L.

Cathepsin L (CTSL) is a ubiquitously expressed lysosomal cysteine peptidase with diverse and highly specific functions. The involvement of CTSL in thymic CD4+ T-cell positive selection has been well documented. Using CTSL(nkt/nkt) mice that lack CTSL activity, we have previously demonstrated that the absence of CTSL activity affects the homeostasis of the T-cell pool by decreasing CD4+ cell thymic production and increasing CD8+ thymocyte production. Herein we investigated the influence of CTSL activity on the homeostasis of peripheral B-cell populations and bone marrow (BM) B-cell maturation. B-cell numbers were increased in lymph nodes (LN), spleen and blood from CTSL (nkt/nkt) mice. Increases in splenic B-cell numbers were restricted to transitional T1 and T2 cells and to the marginal zone (MZ) cell subpopulation. No alterations in the proliferative or apoptosis levels were detected in peripheral B-cell populations from CTSL (nkt/nkt) mice. In the BM, the percentage and the absolute number of pre-pro-B, pro-B, pre-B, immature and mature B cells were not altered. However, in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that BM B-cell production was markedly increased in CTSL (nkt/nkt) mice. Besides, BM B-cell emigration to the spleen was increased in CTSL (nkt/nkt) mice. Colony-forming unit pre-B (CFU pre-B) assays in the presence of BM stromal cells (SC) and reciprocal BM chimeras revealed that both BM B-cell precursors and SC would contribute to sustain the increased B-cell hematopoiesis in CTSL (nkt/nkt) mice. Overall, our data clearly demonstrate that CTSL negatively regulates BM B-cell production and output therefore influencing the homeostasis of peripheral B cells.

Superantigens increase the survival of mice bearing T cell lymphomas by inducing apoptosis of neoplastic cells.

Superantigens bind to major histocompatibility complex class II molecules and interact with T cells expressing a particular T cell receptor Vß inducing a strong proliferation/deletion response of the superantigen-reactive T cells. However, there have been no attempts to investigate the ability of Sags to induce apoptosis in neoplastic T cells by signaling through the Vß region of their TCR. In the present study we show that bacterial and MMTV-encoded superantigens induce the apoptosis of AKR/J cognate lymphoma T cells both in vitro and in vivo. The Fas-Fas-L pathway was shown to be involved in the apoptosis of lymphoma T cells induced by bacterial superantigens. In vivo exposure to bacterial superantigens was able to improve the survival of lymphoma bearing mice. Moreover, the permanent expression of a retroviral encoded superantigen induced the complete remission of an aggressive lymphoma in a high percentage of mice. The possibility of a therapeutic use of superantigens in lymphoma/leukemia T cell malignancies is discussed.

Detection of human mammary tumor virus proteins in human breast cancer cells.

Mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) has been proven to induce mammary cancer in mice. MMTV-like env gene sequences have been detected in one-third of the human breast tumors studied. The whole proviral structure with 95% homology to MMTV was found in two human breast tumors and was designated as human mammary tumor virus (HMTV). HMTV viral particles with betaretroviral features have been isolated. In addition, a retrovirus called human betaretrovirus (HBRV), homologous to the mentioned retroviruses, has been isolated from tissues of patients with primary biliary cirrhosis. In this report, the expression of HMTV envelope (Env) and capsid (Ca) was detected in 10 primary cultures of human breast cancer containing HMTV sequences (MSSM) by Western blot and fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS), using a panel of antibodies against HMTV Env, HBRV Env and Ca and the MMTV Env Gp36 and Ca P27 proteins. By contrast, HMTV proteins did not react with antibody against the MMTV Env Gp52 protein. All the antibodies detected MMTV proteins with exception of two out of four monoclonal antibodies against HMTV Env. Approximately 13% of the MSSM cells showed HMTV protein expression by FACS analysis. This report shows the expression of HMTV proteins for the first time in human breast cancer cells using a panel of antibodies against HMTV, HBRV and MMTV proteins. This should be taken into consideration when MMTV antibodies are used to detect HMTV proteins in human tissues.

Mouse bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells turn activated macrophages into a regulatory-like profile.

In recent years it has become clear that the therapeutic properties of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) are related not only to their ability to differentiate into different lineages but also to their capacity to suppress the immune response. We here studied the influence of MSC on macrophage function. Using mouse thioglycolate-elicited peritoneal macrophages (M) stimulated with LPS, we found that MSC markedly suppressed the production of the inflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-12p70 and interferon-gamma while increased the production of IL-10 and IL-12p40. Similar results were observed using supernatants from MSC suggesting that factor(s) constitutively released by MSC are involved. Supporting a role for PGE(2) we observed that acetylsalicylic acid impaired the ability of MSC to inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines and to stimulate the production of IL-10 by LPS-stimulated M. Moreover, we found that MSC constitutively produce PGE2 at levels able to inhibit the production of TNF-alpha and IL-6 by activated M. MSC also inhibited the up-regulation of CD86 and MHC class II in LPS-stimulated M impairing their ability to activate antigen-specific T CD4+ cells. On the other hand, they stimulated the uptake of apoptotic thymocytes by M. Of note, MSC turned M into cells highly susceptible to infection with the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi increasing more than 5-fold the rate of M infection. Using a model of inflammation triggered by s.c. implantation of glass cylinders, we found that MSC stimulated the recruitment of macrophages which showed a low expression of CD86 and the MHC class II molecule Ia(b) and a high ability to produce IL-10 and IL-12p40, but not IL-12 p70. In summary, our results suggest that MSC switch M into a regulatory profile characterized by a low ability to produce inflammatory cytokines, a high ability to phagocyte apoptotic cells, and a marked increase in their susceptibility to infection by intracellular pathogens.

Critical role of dendritic cells in mouse mammary tumor virus in vivo infection.

Mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) is a milk-transmitted betaretrovirus that causes mammary tumors in mice. Although mammary epithelial cells are the ultimate targets of MMTV, the virus utilizes components of the host immune system to establish infection. Previous studies indicated that dendritic cells play a role in MMTV infection. Here we show that dendritic cells are the first cells to be infected by MMTV in vivo and that they are capable of producing infectious virus that can be transmitted to other cell types. Moreover, upon contact with the virus, dendritic cells became more mature and migrated in response to the chemokine macrophage inflammatory protein 3beta. Finally, we demonstrate that targeted ablation of dendritic cells in vivo dramatically attenuated MMTV infection. These data indicate that MMTV infection of dendritic cells is critical to initial propagation of the virus in vivo.

Cathepsin-L influences the expression of extracellular matrix in lymphoid organs and plays a role in the regulation of thymic output and of peripheral T cell number.

Nackt mice, which are deficient in cathepsin-L (CTSL), show an early impairment during positive selection in the context of class II MHC molecules and as a consequence, the percentage and absolute number of CD4(+) thymocytes are significantly decreased. In this study, we show that lymph nodes from nackt mice are hypertrophied, showing normal absolute numbers of CD4(+) T cells and marked increases in the number of CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Basal proliferative levels are increased in the CD4(+) but not in the CD8(+) population. Lymph node T cells show increases in the expression of alpha(5), alpha(6), and beta(1) integrin chains. These alterations correlate with increases in the expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) components in lymph nodes. Interestingly, laminin, fibronectin, and collagen I and IV are markedly decreased in nackt thymus which shows an augmented output of CD8(+) cells. These results demonstrate that a mutation in the Ctsl gene influences the levels of ECM components in lymphoid organs, the thymic output, and the number of T cells in the periphery. They further raise the possibility that, by regulating the level of expression of ECM components in lymphoid organs, CTSL is able to broadly affect the immune system.

Toll-like receptor 4-dependent activation of dendritic cells by a retrovirus.

Mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) is a milk-borne retrovirus that exploits the adaptive immune system. It has recently been shown that MMTV activates B cells via Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), a molecule involved in innate immune responses. Here, we show that direct virus binding to TLR4 induced maturation of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells and up-regulated expression of the MMTV entry receptor (CD71) on these cells. In vivo, MMTV increased the number of dendritic cells in neonatal Peyer's patches and their expression of CD71; both these effects were dependent on TLR4. Thus, retroviral signaling through TLRs plays a critical role in dendritic-cell participation during infection.

Origin and progression of pregnancy-dependent mammary tumors induced by new mouse mammary tumor virus variants.

In order to study mechanisms of progression of mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV)-induced pregnancy-dependent mammary lesions, we removed and serially transplanted 17 small tumors detected in MMTV-infected pregnant females. This gave rise to the same number of 'in vivo' tumor lines. Hormone-dependency of the passages was determined by comparing tumor development in multiparous versus virgin hosts. We found that the first passages of most of these lesions (11/17) required pregnancy to grow. However, all these tumor lines lost their hormone-dependence through successive passages. The original pregnancy-dependent lesions were mostly multiclonal and showed high levels of estrogen and progesterone receptors. Alternatively, pregnancy-independent tumors arose as clonal dominant populations exhibiting a lower hormone receptor content. Our data show that the progression of hormone-dependent MMTV-induced mammary tumors is an irreversible process associated with the appearance of additional MMTV insertional events as well as alterations in the composition of the tumor cell population.

Neonatal infection with a milk-borne virus is independent of beta7 integrin- and L-selectin-expressing lymphocytes.

Mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) is acquired by neonates through milk and first infects lymphocytes in Peyer's patches. We show here that newborn mice lacking beta7 integrin or L-selectin were infected with MMTV at wild-type levels in both their lymphoid and mammary tissues. Superantigen-mediated activation and cognate T cell deletion were also unimpaired in both types of null mice. A large proportion of neonatal Peyer's patch lymphocytes in wild-type mice were beta7 and beta1 integrin low and both populations increased in response to MMTV infection. These results suggest that adhesion molecules other than beta7 integrin or L-selectin play a role in lymphocyte homing in the gut, peripheral lymph nodes and mammary gland in response to MMTV infection.

Mecanismos coevolutivos entre los retrovirus y sus huespedes: el modelo del tumor mamario murino / Coevolutive mechanisms between retroviruses and their hosts: the murine mammary tumor model

El virus del tumor mamario murino (MMTV) se considera actualmente un modelo de interés para investigar los mecanismos co-evolutivos entre los retrovirus y sus huéspedes. El MMTV es un retrovirus de tipo B que se transmite a través de la leche e induce adenocarcinomas mamarios por activación insercional de proto-oncogenes celulares. Existen também formas endógenas de estos virus integrados permanetemente en el genoma del ratón. Estos provirus se consideran el resultado de la infección de células de la línea germinal ocurridas en los últimos 4 a 5 millones de años. El marco de lectura abierto presente en el LTR 3'de los virus integrados codifica para un superantígeno (SAg) que es capaz de estimular una gran proporción de células T que comparaten la región variable de la cadena beta del TCR. La expresión de este SAg es crítica para el ciclo de vida del virus. Cuando un MMTV exógeno infecta al huésped, las células B resultan infectadas tempranamente y expresan el SAg viral. Las células T reactivas al SAg son reclutadas para responder al mismo y, como consecuencia, tanto las células T reactivas como los linfocitos B infectados se activan y comienzan a proliferar. Este hecho facilita la integración del MMTV y el incremento del número de linfocitos infectados, dando lugar a un importante aumento en la carga viral. Los linfocitos transfieren los virus a la glándula mamaria en la cual, bajo la influencia de hormonas esteroideas, se produce una gran amplificación de la carga viral. Se ha hipotetizado que la presencia de provirus Mtv endómenos conferiría una ventaja selectiva a la problación murina, ya que al inducir la deleción clonal temprana de las células T reactivas a los mismos, protegería al huésped de la infección con un virus exógeno que codifique para un SAg con reactividad cruzada. Sin embargo, resultados recientes discutidos en este trabajo sugieren que los provirus Mtv pueden resultar desventajosos para la población murina ya que son capaces de recombinar con variantes exógenas, dando lugar a partículas virales altamente tumorigénicas. Estos resultados se discuten en relación a trabajos recientes que sugieren la participación de secuencias virales altamente homólogas a los virus MMTV en la carcinogénesis mamaria humana.

Efecto del amamantamiento en la respuesta inmune / Effects of breast feeding in the immune response

Ratones de la cepa BALB/c (Mls-1b) fueron amamantados por nodrizas F1(BALB/cxAKRJ/J) o F1(BALB/cxDBA/2)(Mls-1bxa), investigándose los niveles de reactividad T una vez alcanzada la edad adulta. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que el amamantamiento fue capaz de disminuir significativamente la capacidad de las células T de proliferar frente a antígenos de histocompatibilidad expresados por la nodriza. Se observó también una disminución significativa en la respuesta frente a antígenos de histocompatibilidad no relacionados y frente a antígenos convencionales. Mediante estudios de citofluorometría de flujo se determinó que el porcentaje de células T Vß6+ en ganglios linfáticos y timo estaba significativamente disminuido en las hembras, indicando que el amamantamiento de las nodrizas Mls-1a induce la deleción clonal de las células T reactivas a dicho superantígeno. En los machos, el porcentaje de células T Vß6+ no sufrió modificaciones, lo que sugiere que mecanismos alternativos tales como la inactivación funcional mediarían las alteraciones descriptas. El conjunto de los resultados indica que el impacto antigénico temprano con superantígenos presentes en calostro y leche es capaz de modificar en forma permanente el repertorio T de la cría