Foxo3-/- mice demonstrate reduced numbers of pre-B and recirculating B cells but normal splenic B cell sub-population distribution.

B cell antigen receptor (BCR) cross-linking promotes proliferation and survival of mature B cells. Phosphoinositide-3-kinase-mediated down-regulation of pro-apoptotic and anti-mitogenic genes such as the Foxo family of transcription factors is an important component of this process. Previously, we demonstrated that BCR signaling decreases expression of transcripts for Foxo1, Foxo3 and Foxo4. We now show that BCR-induced down-regulation of Foxo3 and Foxo4 mRNA expression occurs via distinct mechanisms from those established for Foxo1. While Foxo1, Foxo3 and Foxo4 bind the same DNA sequence, the differential control of their expression upon B cell activation suggests that they may have unique functions in the B lineage. To begin to address this issue, we evaluated B cell development and function in Foxo3-/- mice. No effect of Foxo3 deficiency was observed with respect to the following parameters in the splenic B cell compartment: sub-population distribution, proliferation, in vitro differentiation and expression of the Foxo target genes cyclin G2 and B cell translocation gene 1. However, Foxo3-/- mice demonstrated increased basal levels of IgG2a, IgG3 and IgA. A significant reduction in pre-B cell numbers was also observed in Foxo3-/- bone marrow. Finally, recirculating B cells in the bone marrow and peripheral blood were decreased in Foxo3-/- mice, perhaps due to lower than normal expression of receptor for sphingosine-1 phosphate, which mediates egress from lymphoid organs. Thus, Foxo3 makes a unique contribution to B cell development, B cell localization and control of Ig levels.

Characterization of the Genital Microenvironment of Female Rhesus Macaques Prior to and After SIV Infection.

PROBLEM: HIV infection among women is frequently modeled in female rhesus macaques. Longitudinal studies on genital compartment and hormonal factors that can influence susceptibility to SIV infection are lacking in this animal model. METHOD OF STUDY: Genital specimens and menstruation of indoor-housed female rhesus macaques were analyzed prior to and after SIV infection. RESULTS: Median menstrual cycle length averaged 27 days, although highly variable cycle lengths and frequent periods of amenorrhea were observed during summer months. The vaginal microbiota, characterized by adapted Nugent scoring, showed predominance of small Gram-variable rods and Gram-positive cocci. Highly variable vaginal cytokine levels were observed pre- and post-SIV infection. Vaginal viral loads correlated with plasma viral loads, but were not associated with progesterone levels. CONCLUSION: These results provide an integrated characterization of important factors in the vaginal microenvironment that are relevant to the experimental design of HIV prevention and transmission studies in female rhesus macaques.

Chronic alcohol abuse and HIV disease progression: studies with the non-human primate model.

The populations at risk for HIV infection, as well as those living with HIV, overlap with populations that engage in heavy alcohol consumption. Alcohol use has been associated with high-risk sexual behavior and an increased likelihood of acquiring HIV, as well as poor outcome measures of disease such as increased viral loads and declines in CD4+ T lymphocytes among those living with HIV-infections. It is difficult to discern the biological mechanisms by which alcohol use affects the virus:host interaction in human populations due to the numerous variables introduced by human behavior. The rhesus macaque infected with simian immunodeficiency virus has served as an invaluable model for understanding HIV disease and transmission, and thus, provides an ideal model to evaluate the effects of chronic alcohol use on viral infection and disease progression in a controlled environment. In this review, we describe the different macaque models of chronic alcohol consumption and summarize the studies conducted with SIV and alcohol. Collectively, they have shown that chronic alcohol consumption results in higher levels of plasma virus and alterations in immune cell populations that potentiate SIV replication. They also demonstrate a significant impact of chronic alcohol use on SIV-disease progression and survival. These studies highlight the utility of the rhesus macaque in deciphering the biological effects of alcohol on HIV disease. Future studies with this well-established model will address the biological influence of alcohol use on susceptibility to HIV, as well as the efficacy of anti-retroviral therapy.

Chronic Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol administration may not attenuate simian immunodeficiency virus disease progression in female rhesus macaques.

Persons living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) frequently use cannabinoids, either recreationally by smoking marijuana or therapeutically (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol; Δ(9)-THC dronabinol). Previously, we demonstrated that chronic Δ(9)-THC administration decreases early mortality in male simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected macaques. In this study, we sought to examine whether similar protective effects resulted from chronic cannabinoid administration in SIV-infected female rhesus macaques. Clinical and viral parameters were evaluated in eight female rhesus macaques that received either Δ(9)-THC (0.18-0.32 mg/kg, intramuscularly, twice daily) or vehicle (VEH) starting 28 days prior to intravenous inoculation with SIVmac251. SIV disease progression was assessed by changes in body weight, mortality, viral levels in plasma and mucosal sites, and lymphocyte subsets. In contrast to our results in male animals, chronic Δ(9)-THC did not protect SIV-infected female rhesus macaques from early mortality. Markers of SIV disease, including viral load and CD4(+)/CD8(+) ratio, were not altered by Δ(9)-THC compared to control females; however, females that received chronic Δ(9)-THC did not gain as much weight as control animals. In addition, Δ(9)-THC administration increased total CXCR4 expression in both peripheral and duodenal CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes prior to SIV inoculation. Although protection from early mortality was not evident, chronic Δ(9)-THC did not affect clinical markers of SIV disease progression. The contrasting effects of chronic Δ(9)-THC in males versus females remain to be explained, but highlight the need for further studies to explore the sex-dependent effects of Δ(9)-THC and other cannabinoids on the HIV disease course and their implications for virus transmission.

The effects of chronic binge alcohol on the genital microenvironment of simian immunodeficiency virus-infected female rhesus macaques.

Alcohol abuse is a widespread problem among those at risk for and living with HIV and can impact transmission and disease progression. In this study we sought to use the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-macaque model to evaluate the immunological and virological changes in the genital microenvironment of females exposed to chronic alcohol. Female rhesus macaques were treated with alcohol (n=6) or isocaloric sucrose (n=6) for 3 months and then inoculated with SIVmac251. To assess the effects of chronic alcohol on SIV disease and the genital microenvironment, we quantified plasma and genital SIV levels, measured inflammatory cells in genital fluids, and characterized microbial flora by gram stains over 10 weeks post-SIV infection. Following 3 months of alcohol/sucrose treatment, significant differences were observed in the vaginal microenvironment of alcohol-treated animals as compared to controls. Microbial flora of alcohol-treated animals had decreased levels of lactobacillus morphotypes and increased levels of gram-positive cocci relative to sucrose controls. Alcohol-treated animals were also more likely to have white blood cells in vaginal fluids prior to SIV inoculation, which persisted through viral set point. Similar levels of cell-free SIV were observed in plasma and vaginal fluids of both groups, but alcohol-treated animals had a higher incidence and levels of cell-associated SIV shed in vaginal secretions. Chronic alcohol treatment negatively impacts the genital microenvironment prior to and over the course of SIV infection and may increase the risk of genital virus shedding and transmission.

B cell receptor signaling down-regulates forkhead box transcription factor class O 1 mRNA expression via phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and Bruton's tyrosine kinase.

BCR cross-linking promotes mature B cell proliferation and survival. PI3K-mediated down-regulation of proapoptotic and antimitogenic genes such as forkhead box transcription factor class O 1 (FOXO1) is an important component of this process. Previously, BCR-induced phosphorylation of FOXO1 was shown to lead to a block in nuclear localization and subsequent protein degradation. We demonstrate that the BCR also signals through PI3K to down-regulate FOXO1 mRNA expression. Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk), a downstream effector of PI3K, signals through B cell linker protein (BLNK) and phospholipase C (PLC)gamma2 to mediate B cell proliferation and survival in response to BCR cross-linking. BCR-induced down-regulation of FOXO1 mRNA was impaired in murine knockouts of Btk, BLNK, and PLCgamma2. Because B cells in these models are predominantly immature, experiments were also performed using mature B cells expressing low levels of Btk and BLNK. Similar results were obtained. Inhibitors of downstream components of the Btk/BLNK/PLCgamma2 pathway were used to define the mechanism by which Btk signaling inhibits FOXO1 expression. The protein kinase Cbeta inhibitor Gö6850 had minimal effects on BCR-mediated FOXO1 mRNA down-regulation. However, cyclosporin A, an inhibitor of the Ca(2+)-dependent phosphatase calcineurin, had similar effects on FOXO1 mRNA expression as the PI3K inhibitor LY294002. Neither Btk deficiency nor cyclosporin A prevented FOXO1 protein phosphorylation, indicating that PI3K down-regulates FOXO1 via two independent pathways. We show that the Btk/BLNK/PLCgamma2 pathway mediates BCR-induced changes in expression of the FOXO1 target gene cyclin G2. These observations support the hypothesis that Btk mediates BCR-induced proliferation and survival in part via inhibition of FOXO expression.