Iron-triggered signaling via ETS1 and the p38/JNK MAPK pathway regulates Bmp6 expression.

BMP6 is an iron-sensing cytokine whose transcription in liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) is enhanced by high iron levels, a step that precedes the induction of the iron-regulatory hormone hepcidin. While several reports suggested a cell-autonomous induction of Bmp6 by iron-triggered signals, likely via sensing of oxidative stress by the transcription factor NRF2, other studies proposed the dominant role of a paracrine yet unidentified signal released by iron-loaded hepatocytes. To further explore the mechanisms of Bmp6 transcriptional regulation, we used female mice aged 10-11 months, which are characterized by hepatocytic but not LSEC iron accumulation, and no evidence of systemic iron overload. We found that LSECs of aged mice exhibit increased Bmp6 mRNA levels as compared to young controls, but do not show a transcriptional signature characteristic of activated NFR2-mediated signaling in FACS-sorted LSECs. We further observed that primary murine LSECs derived from both wild-type and NRF2 knock-out mice induce Bmp6 expression in response to iron exposure. By analyzing transcriptomic data of FACS-sorted LSECs from aged versus young mice, as well as early after iron citrate injections, we identified ETS1 as a candidate transcription factor involved in Bmp6 transcriptional regulation. By performing siRNA-mediated knockdown, small-molecule treatments, and chromatin immunoprecipitation in primary LSECs, we show that Bmp6 transcription is regulated by iron via ETS1 and p38/JNK MAP kinase-mediated signaling, at least in part independently of NRF2. Thereby, these findings identify the new components of LSEC iron sensing machinery broadly associated with cellular stress responses.

Muscle-derived exophers promote reproductive fitness.

Organismal functionality and reproduction depend on metabolic rewiring and balanced energy resources. However, the crosstalk between organismal homeostasis and fecundity and the associated paracrine signaling mechanisms are still poorly understood. Using Caenorhabditis elegans, we discovered that large extracellular vesicles (known as exophers) previously found to remove damaged subcellular elements in neurons and cardiomyocytes are released by body wall muscles (BWM) to support embryonic growth. Exopher formation (exopheresis) by BWM is sex-specific and a non-cell autonomous process regulated by developing embryos in the uterus. Embryo-derived factors induce the production of exophers that transport yolk proteins produced in the BWM and ultimately deliver them to newly formed oocytes. Consequently, offspring of mothers with a high number of muscle-derived exophers grew faster. We propose that the primary role of muscular exopheresis is to stimulate reproductive capacity, thereby influencing the adaptation of worm populations to the current environmental conditions.

Impaired iron recycling from erythrocytes is an early hallmark of aging.

Aging affects iron homeostasis, as evidenced by tissue iron loading and anemia in the elderly. Iron needs in mammals are met primarily by iron recycling from senescent red blood cells (RBCs), a task chiefly accomplished by splenic red pulp macrophages (RPMs) via erythrophagocytosis. Given that RPMs continuously process iron, their cellular functions might be susceptible to age-dependent decline, a possibility that has been unexplored to date. Here, we found that 10- to 11-month-old female mice exhibit iron loading in RPMs, largely attributable to a drop in iron exporter ferroportin, which diminishes their erythrophagocytosis capacity and lysosomal activity. Furthermore, we identified a loss of RPMs during aging, underlain by the combination of proteotoxic stress and iron-dependent cell death resembling ferroptosis. These impairments lead to the retention of senescent hemolytic RBCs in the spleen, and the formation of undegradable iron- and heme-rich extracellular protein aggregates, likely derived from ferroptotic RPMs. We further found that feeding mice an iron-reduced diet alleviates iron accumulation in RPMs, enhances their ability to clear erythrocytes, and reduces damage. Consequently, this diet ameliorates hemolysis of splenic RBCs and reduces the burden of protein aggregates, mildly increasing serum iron availability in aging mice. Taken together, we identified RPM collapse as an early hallmark of aging and demonstrated that dietary iron reduction improves iron turnover efficacy.