Short DNA/RNA heteroduplex oligonucleotide interacting proteins are key regulators of target gene silencing.

Antisense oligonucleotide (ASO)-based therapy is one of the next-generation therapy, especially targeting neurological disorders. Many cases of ASO-dependent gene expression suppression have been reported. Recently, we developed a tocopherol conjugated DNA/RNA heteroduplex oligonucleotide (Toc-HDO) as a new type of drug. Toc-HDO is more potent, stable, and efficiently taken up by the target tissues compared to the parental ASO. However, the detailed mechanisms of Toc-HDO, including its binding proteins, are unknown. Here, we developed native gel shift assays with fluorescence-labeled nucleic acids samples extracted from mice livers. These assays revealed two Toc-HDO binding proteins, annexin A5 (ANXA5) and carbonic anhydrase 8 (CA8). Later, we identified two more proteins, apurinic/apyrimidinic endodeoxyribonuclease 1 (APEX1) and flap structure-specific endonuclease 1 (FEN1) by data mining. shRNA knockdown studies demonstrated that all four proteins regulated Toc-HDO activity in Hepa1-6, mouse hepatocellular cells. In vitro binding assays and fluorescence polarization assays with purified recombinant proteins characterized the identified proteins and pull-down assays with cell lysates demonstrated the protein binding to the Toc-HDO and ASO in a biological environment. Taken together, our findings provide a brand new molecular biological insight as well as future directions for HDO-based disease therapy.

Highly efficient silencing of microRNA by heteroduplex oligonucleotides.

AntimiR is an antisense oligonucleotide that has been developed to silence microRNA (miRNA) for the treatment of intractable diseases. Enhancement of its in vivo efficacy and improvement of its toxicity are highly desirable but remain challenging. We here design heteroduplex oligonucleotide (HDO)-antimiR as a new technology comprising an antimiR and its complementary RNA. HDO-antimiR binds targeted miRNA in vivo more efficiently by 12-fold than the parent single-stranded antimiR. HDO-antimiR also produced enhanced phenotypic effects in mice with upregulated expression of miRNA-targeting messenger RNAs. In addition, we demonstrated that the enhanced potency of HDO-antimiR was not explained by its bio-stability or delivery to the targeted cell, but reflected an improved intracellular potency. Our findings provide new insights into biology of miRNA silencing by double-stranded oligonucleotides and support the in vivo potential of this technology based on a new class of for the treatment of miRNA-related diseases.

Synthesis and properties of vitamin E analog-conjugated neomycin for delivery of RNAi drugs to liver cells.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a promising tool to regulate gene expression by external double stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) such as siRNAs. As an efficient method to deliver siRNAs to liver cells, we propose a novel strategy using vitamin E (VE)-conjugated neomycin derivatives. With the aim of delivering RNAi-based drugs to liver cells, several tripod-type and prodrug-type neomycin derivatives were synthesized, all of which were thermodynamically stabilized RNA duplexes. The prodrug-type derivative 7 and the tripod-type derivative 10 were delivered to liver cancer cells and successfully induced RNAi activity. These results indicated the potential use of natural aminoglycosides as carriers of RNAi drugs.

[Recent progress and prospect in oligonucleotide therapeutics].

Remarkable progress has been made in chemical modification and nonviral delivery systems that improve the properties and efficacy of therapeutics oligonucleotides therapeutics, such as antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) and small interfering RNA(siRNA). ASOs act through various mechanisms including the degradation of mRNA by RNase H (gapmer-type ASO) and the modulation alternative splicing patterns(splice switching oligonucleotide). Recent favorable outcomes in clinical trials for cancers and genetic diseases such as familial amyloid polyneuropathy and Duchenne muscular dystrophy indicate high clinical potency of oligonucleotide therapeutics. Here we reviewed recent advances in basic properties and clinical applications of ASO and siRNA, and provide future perspective on oligonucleotide therapeutics.

Synthesis and properties of double-stranded RNA-bindable oligodiaminogalactose derivatives conjugated with vitamin E.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a gene-regulating system that is controlled by external short interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Sequence selective gene silencing by siRNA shows promise in clinical research. However, there have been few efficient methods for delivering siRNAs to target cells. In this study, we propose a novel type of RNA duplex-bindable molecule with an oligodiaminosaccharide structure. These 2,6-diamino-2,6-dideoxy-(1-4)-ß-D-galactopyranose oligomers (oligodiaminogalactoses; ODAGals) conjugated with α-tocopherol (vitamin E; VE) or a VE analog were designed as novel siRNA-bindable molecules that can be utilized to deliver RNAi drugs to the liver. Among these compounds, the VE analog-bound ODAGal was suggested to bind to RNA duplexes without inhibiting RNAi activity.

Can anti-AQP4 antibody damage the blood-brain barrier?

BACKGROUND: Aquaporin 4 (AQP4) is a water-channel protein predominantly expressed in astrocyte end feet that make up the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Recently, anti-AQP4 antibody has been identified as a specific biomarker of neuromyelitis optica (NMO). However, whether anti-AQP4 antibodies damage the BBB is unclear. METHODS: We evaluated BBB damage in patients with NMO and multiple sclerosis by measuring albumin leakage (AL) and studied its correlation with anti-AQP4 antibody. RESULTS: No obvious difference in AL was observed between patients with and without anti-AQP4 antibodies. In the multivariate analysis, anti-AQP4 antibody was not associated with BBB damage. Of the anti-AQP4-positive patients, 58.0% had normal AL values, and the degree of BBB damage was unrelated to the anti-AQP4 antibody titer. In addition, 41.9% of anti-AQP4-positive patients showed no gadolinium enhancement of the MRI. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that the presence of anti-AQP4 antibody alone in plasma is insufficient to disrupt the BBB.

Comparison of interaction between antimiR and microRNA versus HDO-antimiR and microRNA by molecular dynamics simulation.

Recently, we found DNA/RNA heteroduplex oligonucleotide-based antimiR (HDO-antimiR) can more efficiently inhibit the target miRNA than conventional antimiR after its cellular uptake. But the mechanism of HDO-antimiR about the target-silencing is unknown. We here tried to elucidate the interaction mechanism of HDO-antimiR to miRNA using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. When interaction of the conventional antimiR or HDO-antimiR and the target miRNA was simulated, they combined with each other in various forms. In the hydrogen bond analyses, base site of the antimiR formed hydrogen bond with miRNA. On the other hand, phosphate site of the HDO-antimiR formed hydrogen bond with miRNA. These results suggested that there were differences about the binding mechanisms between antimiR and HDO-antimiR to the target miRNA. In particular, there was a difference in the binding site between antimiR and HDO-antimiR. Additionally, it was found that guanine in the miRNA is mainly involved in the binding to the antimiR or HDO-antimiR. MD simulation method is useful in understanding the mechanism of oligonucleotide therapeutics.

Efficient in vivo delivery of siRNA into brain capillary endothelial cells along with endogenous lipoprotein.

The brain capillary endothelial cell (BCEC) is a major functional component of the blood-brain barrier and is an underlying factor in the pathophysiology of various diseases, including brain ischemia, multiple sclerosis, and neurodegenerative disorders. We examined gene silencing in BCECs by using endogenous lipoprotein to introduce short-interfering RNA (siRNA) in vivo. A cholesterol-conjugated 21/23-mer siRNA targeting organic anion transporter 3 (OAT3) mRNA (Chol-siOAT3) was intravenously injected into mice after its incorporation into extracted endogenous lipoproteins. Chol-siOAT3 was not delivered to neurons or glia, but was successfully delivered into BCECs and resulted in a significant reduction of OAT3 mRNA levels when injected after its incorporation into high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Efficient delivery was not achieved, however, when Chol-siOAT3 was injected without any lipoproteins, or after its incorporation into low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Investigations in apolipoprotein E (ApoE)-deficient and LDL receptor (LDLR)-deficient mice revealed that the uptake of HDL-containing Chol-siOAT3 was mainly mediated by ApoE and LDLR in mice. These findings indicate that siRNA can be delivered into BCECs in vivo by using endogenous lipoprotein, which could make this strategy useful as a new gene silencing therapy for diseases involving BCECs.

Highly efficient gene silencing in mouse brain by overhanging-duplex oligonucleotides via intraventricular route.

Gapmer-type antisense oligonucleotides have not yet been approved for the treatment of central nervous system diseases, whereas steric-blocking-type antisense oligonucleotides have been well-developed for clinical use. We here characterize a new type of double-stranded oligonucleotides, overhanging-duplex oligonucleotides, which are composed of the parent gapmer and its extended complementary RNA. By intracerebroventricular injection, overhanging oligonucleotides show greater silencing potency with more efficient delivery into mouse brains than the parent single-stranded gapmer. Structure-activity relationship analyses reveal that the potency enhancement requires 13-mer or more overhanging oligonucleotides with a phosphorothioate backbone. Overhanging oligonucleotides provide a new platform of therapeutic oligonucleotides for gene modulation in the central nervous system.

Efficient in vivo delivery of siRNA to the liver by conjugation of alpha-tocopherol.

RNA interference is a powerful tool for target-specific knockdown of gene expression. However, efficient and safe in vivo delivery of short interfering RNA (siRNA) to the target organ, which is essential for therapeutic applications, has not been established. In this study we used alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E), which has its own physiological transport pathway to most of the organs, as a carrier molecule of siRNA in vivo. The alpha-tocopherol was covalently bound to the antisense strand of 27/29-mer siRNA at the 5'-end (Toc-siRNA). The 27/29-mer Toc-siRNA was designed to be cleaved by Dicer, producing a mature form of 21/21-mer siRNA after releasing alpha-tocopherol. The C6 hydroxyl group of alpha-tocopherol, associated with antioxidant activity, was abolished. Using this new vector, intravenous injection of 2 mg/kg of Toc-siRNA, targeting apolipoprotein B (apoB), achieved efficient reduction of endogenous apoB messenger RNA (mRNA) in the liver. The downregulation of apoB mRNA was confirmed by the accumulation of lipid droplets in the liver as a phenotype. Neither induction of interferons (IFNs) nor other overt side effects were revealed by biochemical and pathological analyses. These findings indicate that Toc-siRNA is effective and safe for RNA interference-mediated gene silencing in vivo.

Efficient In Vivo Delivery of siRNA to the Liver by Conjugation of α-Tocopherol.

RNA interference is a powerful tool for target-specific knockdown of gene expression. However, efficient and safe in vivo delivery of short interfering RNA (siRNA) to the target organ, which is essential for therapeutic applications, has not been established. In this study we used α-tocopherol (vitamin E), which has its own physiological transport pathway to most of the organs, as a carrier molecule of siRNA in vivo. The α-tocopherol was covalently bound to the antisense strand of 27/29-mer siRNA at the 5'-end (Toc-siRNA). The 27/29-mer Toc-siRNA was designed to be cleaved by Dicer, producing a mature form of 21/21-mer siRNA after releasing α-tocopherol. The C6 hydroxyl group of α-tocopherol, associated with antioxidant activity, was abolished. Using this new vector, intravenous injection of 2 mg/kg of Toc-siRNA, targeting apolipoprotein B (apoB), achieved efficient reduction of endogenous apoB messenger RNA (mRNA) in the liver. The downregulation of apoB mRNA was confirmed by the accumulation of lipid droplets in the liver as a phenotype. Neither induction of interferons (IFNs) nor other overt side effects were revealed by biochemical and pathological analyses. These findings indicate that Toc-siRNA is effective and safe for RNA interference-mediated gene silencing in vivo.

Artificial cationic peptides that increase nuclease resistance of siRNA without disturbing RNAi activity.

Properties of cationic peptides bearing amino or guanidino groups with various side chain lengths that bind to double stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) were investigated. Peptides with shorter side chain lengths effectively bound to dsRNAs (12mers) increasing their thermal stability. NMR measurements suggested that the cationic peptide binds to the inner side of the major groove of dsRNA. These peptides also increased the thermal stability of siRNA and effectively protected from RNase A digestion. On the other hand, both peptides containing amino groups and guanidine groups did not disturb RNAi activity.

Modulation of blood-brain barrier function by a heteroduplex oligonucleotide in vivo.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is increasingly regarded as a dynamic interface that adapts to the needs of the brain, responds to physiological changes, and gets affected by and can even promote diseases. Modulation of BBB function at the molecular level in vivo is beneficial for a variety of basic and clinical studies. Here we show that our heteroduplex oligonucleotide (HDO), composed of an antisense oligonucleotide and its complementary RNA, conjugated to α-tocopherol as a delivery ligand, efficiently reduced the expression of organic anion transporter 3 (OAT3) gene in brain microvascular endothelial cells in mice. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates that intravenous administration of chemically synthesized HDO can remarkably silence OAT3 at the mRNA and protein levels. We also demonstrated modulation of the efflux transport function of OAT3 at the BBB in vivo. HDO will serve as a novel platform technology to advance the biology and pathophysiology of the BBB in vivo, and will also open a new therapeutic field of gene silencing at the BBB for the treatment of various intractable neurological disorders.

Drug delivery system of therapeutic oligonucleotides.

Therapeutic oligonucleotides are promising technologies. Nevertheless, improvement of their efficacy is an important issue. Introducing this drug delivery system (DDS) makes for a great enhancement for delivery of oligonucleotides to targeted tissue or cells. The strategy of DDS for therapeutic oligonucleotides is divided into four categories, A) single piece of oligonucleotide, B) oligonucleotide-ligand conjugate, C) oligonucleotide-polymer conjugate, and D) nanoparticle. In this review we will describe those basic concepts, especially for the technology of conjugating ligand. In addition, we developed a new technology, heteroduplex oligonucleotide (HDO), binding ligand-molecule to antisense oligonucleotide indirectly. We also outline α-tocopherol (a natural isomer of vitamin E) conjugated HDO.

Escape from the interferon response associated with RNA interference using vectors that encode long modified hairpin-RNA.

In mammalian cells, siRNAs have been used to induce RNA interference (RNAi) in an attempt to prevent nonspecific effects (including the interferon (IFN) response) which are caused by long double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) of more than 30 bp. In this report, we describe a novel and simple strategy for avoiding activation of the IFN response by dsRNA. We show that modified hairpin-RNAs (mhRNAs) of more than 100 bp, with multiple specific point-mutations within the sense strand and transcribed from the U6 or tRNA(Val) promoters, can cause RNAi without inducing the IFN pathway genes. Moreover, we demonstrate that the 50-bp mhRNA vector could effectively suppress the replication of multiple hepatitis C viruses (the genomes of which differ slightly, thus the 21-bp siRNA vector failed to suppress one of them). Our findings should enhance the exploitation of RNAi in mammalian cells, especially in the field of RNAi therapy against pathogenic viruses.

Chimeric Antisense Oligonucleotide Conjugated to α-Tocopherol.

We developed an efficient system for delivering short interfering RNA (siRNA) to the liver by using α-tocopherol conjugation. The α-tocopherol-conjugated siRNA was effective and safe for RNA interference-mediated gene silencing in vivo. In contrast, when the 13-mer LNA (locked nucleic acid)-DNA gapmer antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) was directly conjugated with α-tocopherol it showed markedly reduced silencing activity in mouse liver. Here, therefore, we tried to extend the 5'-end of the ASO sequence by using 5'-α-tocopherol-conjugated 4- to 7-mers of unlocked nucleic acid (UNA) as a "second wing." Intravenous injection of mice with this α-tocopherol-conjugated chimeric ASO achieved more potent silencing than ASO alone in the liver, suggesting increased delivery of the ASO to the liver. Within the cells, the UNA wing was cleaved or degraded and α-tocopherol was released from the 13-mer gapmer ASO, resulting in activation of the gapmer. The α-tocopherol-conjugated chimeric ASO showed high efficacy, with hepatic tropism, and was effective and safe for gene silencing in vivo. We have thus identified a new, effective LNA-DNA gapmer structure in which drug delivery system (DDS) molecules are bound to ASO with UNA sequences.

Enteral siRNA delivery technique for therapeutic gene silencing in the liver via the lymphatic route.

An efficient targeting delivery technology is needed for functional oligonucleotides to exert their potential effect on the target gene without an adverse effect in vivo. Development of enteral delivery systems for nucleic acids is a major challenge because of their large molecular size and instability. Here, we describe a new enteral delivery technique that enables small interfering RNA (siRNA) selectively delivered to the liver to silence its target Apolipoprotein B gene expression. A nuclease-resistant synthetic siRNA was conjugated with α-tochopherol and administered as lipid nanoparticle to the large intestine of the mice in a postprandial state. The selective transport into the liver, effective gene silence, and consequently significant reduction in serum low density lipoprotein-cholesterol level, were demonstrated. The chylomicron-mediated pathway via the lymphatic route was suggested as major mechanism. This unique approach may provide a basis for developing oral and rectal delivery systems for nucleic acids targeting liver.

DNA/RNA heteroduplex oligonucleotide for highly efficient gene silencing.

Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are recognized therapeutic agents for the modulation of specific genes at the post-transcriptional level. Similar to any medical drugs, there are opportunities to improve their efficacy and safety. Here we develop a short DNA/RNA heteroduplex oligonucleotide (HDO) with a structure different from double-stranded RNA used for short interfering RNA and single-stranded DNA used for ASO. A DNA/locked nucleotide acid gapmer duplex with an α-tocopherol-conjugated complementary RNA (Toc-HDO) is significantly more potent at reducing the expression of the targeted mRNA in liver compared with the parent single-stranded gapmer ASO. Toc-HDO also improves the phenotype in disease models more effectively. In addition, the high potency of Toc-HDO results in a reduction of liver dysfunction observed in the parent ASO at a similar silencing effect. HDO technology offers a novel concept of therapeutic oligonucleotides, and the development of this molecular design opens a new therapeutic field.

[Medical treatment of dyskinesia].

Dyskinesia and dystonia are common complications of long-term levodopa therapy. Because peak-dose dyskinesia is due to excessive dopaminergic stimulation by anti-parkinsonian drugs, it is solved by reducing the whole dose or by taking frequent small doses of levodopa in order to keep relatively stable serum levels. It may be attenuated by dopamine receptor agonists or amantadine which acts as an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor agonist. On the other hand, since early morning dystonia is related to the decline in the level of levodopa, it is initially treated by adding a small dose of levodopa in bedtime. Other patterns of dystonia are often treated accordingly to the treatment of wearing-off phenomenon.

Short interfering RNA and the central nervous system: development of nonviral delivery systems.

The development of gene silencing therapies for neurological diseases has placed great importance on the delivery of short interfering RNA (siRNA) to the central nervous system (CNS). However, delivery of siRNA to neurons, glia and brain capillary endothelial cells (BCECs) has not been well established. This editorial describes different approaches that are being used to efficiently deliver siRNA to the CNS via intravenous, intracerebroventricular, or intranasal administration.