Exocytosis in islet beta-cells.

The development of technologies that allow for live optical imaging of exocytosis from beta-cells has greatly improved our understanding of insulin secretion. Two-photon imaging, in particular, has enabled researchers to visualize the exocytosis of large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs) containing insulin from beta-cells in intact islets of Langerhans. These studies have revealed that high glucose levels induce two phases of insulin secretion and that this release is dependent upon cytosolic Ca(2+) and cAMP. This technology has also made it possible to examine the spatial profile of insulin exocytosis in these tissues and compare that profile with those of other secretory glands. Such studies have led to the discovery of the massive exocytosis of synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMVs) in beta-cells. These imaging studies have also helped clarify facets of insulin exocytosis that cannot be properly addressed using the currently available electrophysiological techniques. This chapter provides a concise introduction to the field of optical imaging for those researchers who wish to characterize exocytosis from beta-cells in the islets of Langerhans.

Opposing roles for SNAP23 in secretion in exocrine and endocrine pancreatic cells.

The membrane fusion of secretory granules with plasma membranes is crucial for the exocytosis of hormones and enzymes. Secretion disorders can cause various diseases such as diabetes or pancreatitis. Synaptosomal-associated protein 23 (SNAP23), a soluble N-ethyl-maleimide sensitive fusion protein attachment protein receptor (SNARE) molecule, is essential for secretory granule fusion in several cell lines. However, the in vivo functions of SNAP23 in endocrine and exocrine tissues remain unclear. In this study, we show opposing roles for SNAP23 in secretion in pancreatic exocrine and endocrine cells. The loss of SNAP23 in the exocrine and endocrine pancreas resulted in decreased and increased fusion of granules to the plasma membrane after stimulation, respectively. Furthermore, we identified a low molecular weight compound, MF286, that binds specifically to SNAP23 and promotes insulin secretion in mice. Our results demonstrate opposing roles for SNAP23 in the secretion mechanisms of the endocrine and exocrine pancreas and reveal that the SNAP23-binding compound MF286 may be a promising drug for diabetes treatment.

Two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging of primed SNARE complexes in presynaptic terminals and ß cells.

It remains unclear how readiness for Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis depends on varying degrees of SNARE complex assembly. Here we directly investigate the SNARE assembly using two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) between three pairs of neuronal SNAREs in presynaptic boutons and pancreatic ß cells in the islets of Langerhans. These FRET probes functionally rescue their endogenous counterparts, supporting ultrafast exocytosis. We show that trans-SNARE complexes accumulated in the active zone, and estimate the number of complexes associated with each docked vesicle. In contrast, SNAREs were unassembled in resting state, and assembled only shortly prior to insulin exocytosis, which proceeds slowly. We thus demonstrate that distinct states of fusion readiness are associated with SNARE complex formation. Our FRET/FLIM approaches enable optical imaging of fusion readiness in both live and chemically fixed tissues.

Munc18b is a major mediator of insulin exocytosis in rat pancreatic ß-cells.

Sec1/Munc18 proteins facilitate the formation of trans-SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) complexes that mediate fusion of secretory granule (SG) with plasma membrane (PM). The capacity of pancreatic ß-cells to exocytose insulin becomes compromised in diabetes. ß-Cells express three Munc18 isoforms of which the role of Munc18b is unknown. We found that Munc18b depletion in rat islets disabled SNARE complex formation formed by syntaxin (Syn)-2 and Syn-3. Two-photon imaging analysis revealed in Munc18b-depleted ß-cells a 40% reduction in primary exocytosis (SG-PM fusion) and abrogation of almost all sequential SG-SG fusion, together accounting for a 50% reduction in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). In contrast, gain-of-function expression of Munc18b wild-type and, more so, dominant-positive K314L/R315L mutant promoted the assembly of cognate SNARE complexes, which caused potentiation of biphasic GSIS. We found that this was attributed to a more than threefold enhancement of both primary exocytosis and sequential SG-SG fusion, including long-chain fusion (6-8 SGs) not normally (2-3 SG fusion) observed. Thus, Munc18b-mediated exocytosis may be deployed to increase secretory efficiency of SGs in deeper cytosolic layers of ß-cells as well as additional primary exocytosis, which may open new avenues of therapy development for diabetes.

SNARE conformational changes that prepare vesicles for exocytosis.

When cells release hormones and neurotransmitters through exocytosis, cytosolic Ca(2+) triggers the fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane. It is well known that this fusion requires assembly of a SNARE protein complex. However, the timing of SNARE assembly relative to vesicle fusion--essential for understanding exocytosis--has not been demonstrated. To investigate this timing, we constructed a probe that detects the assembly of two plasma membrane SNAREs, SNAP25 and syntaxin-1A, through fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). With two-photon imaging, we simultaneously measured FRET signals and insulin exocytosis in beta cells from the pancreatic islet of Langerhans. In some regions of the cell, we found that the SNARE complex was preassembled, which enabled rapid exocytosis. In other regions, SNARE assembly followed Ca(2+) influx, and exocytosis was slower. Thus, SNARE proteins exist in multiple stable preparatory configurations, from which Ca(2+) may trigger exocytosis through distinct mechanisms and with distinct kinetics.