Infectious bursal disease virus tissue tropism and pathogenesis of the infection in chickens by application of in situ PCR, immunoperoxase and HE staining.

Infectious bursal disease is one of an OIE list of notifiable diseases. Chicken is the only host that manifests clinical signs and its pathogenicity is correlated with the distribution of antigens in organs. This study was conducted to determine disease pathogenesis and virus tissue tropism by in situ PCR, immunoperoxidase staining (IPS), and HE staining. Twenty four chickens were infected with very virulent Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (vvIBDV). Fifteen chickens were kept as a control group. Infected chickens were sacrificed at hrs 2, 4, 6, 12, days 1, 2, 4, and 6 post-inoculation (pi). While, control chickens were euthanized on days 0, 1, 2, 4, and 6 pi. Different tissues were collected, fixed in 10% buffered formalin, and processed. At hr 2 pi, virus was detected in intestinal, junction of the proventriculus and gizzard, cecal tonsil, liver, kidney, and bursa of Fabricius. At hr 4 pi, virus reached spleen, and at hr 6 pi, it entered thymus. At hr 12 pi, virus concentration increased in positive tissues. The latest invaded tissue was muscle on day 1 pi. Secondary viraemia occurred during 12-24 h pi. In situ PCR was the most sensitive technique to highlight obscure points of infection in this study.

Velogenic newcastle disease virus tissue tropism and pathogenesis of infection in chickens by application of in situ PCR, immunoperoxase staining and HE staining.

Limited deep studies are available in the field of early stages of pathogenesis of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infection and tissue tropism of NDV. In this study, 24 specific pathogen free (SPF) chickens of white leghorn breed were infected with Newcastle disease (ND) by intranasal administration of 105 50% EID50/0.1 mL of velogenic NDV (vNDV). A second group of 15 chickens were kept as a control group. Chickens were monitored every day to record clinical signs. Infected chickens were euthanized by cervical dislocation at successive times, namely at hours (hrs) 2, 4, 6, 12, days 1, 2, 4, and 6 post-inoculation (pi). Whereas, control group chickens were euthanized on days 0, 1, 2, 4, and 6 pi. Tissues of brain, trachea, lung, caecal tonsil, liver, kidney, spleen, heart, proventriculus, intestine, and thymus were collected, fixed in 10% buffered formalin, embedded in paraffin, and sectioned. HS staining, immunoperoxidase staining (IPS) and in situ PCR were applied. It was concluded that at hr 2 pi, virus seemed to be inclined to trachea and respiratory tract. Meanwhile, it attacked caecal tonsils, intestine and bursa of Fabricus. While primary viraemia was ongoing, virus created footing in kidney and thymus. At hr 4 pi, proventriculus, liver, and spleen were attacked. However, at hr 6 pi, brain and heart were involved. Secondary viraemia probably started as early as hr 12 pi since all collected tissues were positive. Tissue tropism was determined in trachea, caecal tonsil, liver, bursa of Fabricius, intestine, proventriculus, lung, spleen, thymus, kidney, heart, and brain.

Attenuation and molecular characterization of fowl adenovirus 8b propagated in a bioreactor and its immunogenicity, efficacy, and virus shedding in broiler chickens.

Background and Aim: Live-attenuated vaccines are the most successful type of vaccine and could be useful in controlling fowl adenovirus (FAdV) 8b infection. This study aimed to attenuate, molecularly characterize, and determine the immunogenicity, efficacy, and challenge virus shedding in broiler chickens. Materials and Methods: The FAdV 8b isolate (UPM08136) was passaged onto chicken embryo liver (CEL) cells until attenuation. We sequenced and analyzed the hexon and fiber genes of the passage isolates. The attenuated bioreactor-passage isolate was inoculated into 1-day-old broiler chickens with (attenuated and inactivated) and without booster groups and challenged. Body weight (BW), liver weight (LW), liver: body weight ratio (LBR), FAdV antibody titers, T-lymphocyte subpopulation in the liver, spleen, and thymus, and challenge virus load and shedding were measured. Results: Typical cytopathic effects with novel genetic changes on CEL cells were observed. The uninoculated control-challenged (UCC) group had significantly lower BW and higher LW and LBR than the inoculated groups. A significantly higher FAdV antibody titer was observed in the challenged non-booster and attenuated booster groups than in the UCC group. T cells in the spleen and thymus of the liver of inoculated chickens were higher than uninoculated control group levels at all-time points and at different times. A significantly higher FAdV challenge virus load was observed in the liver and shedding in the cloaca of UCC chickens than in non-booster chickens. Conclusion: The FAdV 8b isolate was successfully attenuated, safe, and immunogenic. It reduces virus shedding and is effective and recommended as a vaccine against FAdV infection in broiler chickens.

Efficacy, immunogenicity, and virus shedding in broiler chickens inoculated with live attenuated fowl adenovirus serotype 8b propagated a bioreactor.

Background: Fowl adenovirus (FAdV) 8b causes huge economic losses in the poultry industry worldwide. Attenuated FAdV 8b could be useful in preventing FAdV infections globally and scale-up obstacles could be solved by bioreactor technology. Aim: This study was carried out to attenuate the FAdV 8b isolate, propagate it in a bioreactor, molecularly characterize the passage isolates, and determine the immunogenicity, efficacy, and shedding of the virus of chickens. Methods: FAdV serotype 8b (UPM11142) isolate was passaged on chicken embryo liver (CEL) cells until attenuation and propagated in a bioreactor (UPM11142P20B1). Hexon and fiber genes of the isolates were sequenced and analyzed. UPM11142P20B1 was administered to 116-day-old broiler chickens divided into four groups, A (control), B (non-booster), C (booster with UPM11142P20B1), and D (booster with inactivated UPM11142P5B1). Eight chickens from each group were challenged. Body weight (BW) and liver weight (LW), liver: BW ratio (LBR), FAdV antibody titer, T lymphocyte sub-populations in the liver, spleen and thymus; and challenge virus load in the liver and shedding in cloaca were measured at weekly intervals. Results: The isolate caused typical cytopathic effects on CEL cells typical of FAdV. Novel molecular changes in the genes occurred which could be markers for FAdV 8b attenuation. BW, LW, and LBR were similar among groups throughout the trial but the uninoculated control-challenged group (UCC) had significantly higher LBR than the inoculated and challenged groups at 35 dpi. Non-booster group had higher FAdV antibodies at all time points than the uninoculated control group (UCG); and the challenged booster groups had higher titer at 35 dpi than UCC. T lymphocytes increased at different time-points in the liver of inoculated chickens, and in the spleen and thymus as well, and was higher in the organs of inoculated challenged groups than the UCC. There was a significantly higher challenge virus load in the liver and cloaca of UCC chickens than in the non-booster chickens. Conclusion: UPM11142P20B1 was safe, efficacious, significantly reduced shedding, and is recommended as a candidate vaccine in the prevention and control of FAdV 8b infections in broiler chickens.

TaqMan probe-based qPCR method for specific detection and quantification of fowl adenovirus 8b challenge from chickens inoculated with live attenuated or inactivated virus.

Background: Fowl adenovirus (FAdV) 8b and other serotypes cause inclusion body hepatitis (IBH) in chickens. Specific detection of aetiologic serotype in mixed infection and vaccine failure could be difficult. Aim: The objective of this study was to develop a TaqMan probe-based qPCR method for the detection and quantification of the FAdV 8b challenge virus. Methods: Forty-eight broiler chickens inoculated with live attenuated or inactivated FAdV 8b strains at day 1 of age either with or without booster at day 14 post-inoculation were used. The chickens were challenged with a pathogenic strain of FAdV 8b at day 28 of age. Liver and cloacal swabs were collected on days 7 and 14 post-challenge. Primers and probes were designed, specificity confirmed, and used to carry out qPCR amplification. Results: The assay amplified the FAdV DNA challenge virus, but not that of the live attenuated virus. It could detect FAdV 8b DNA as low as 0.001 ng/µl in liver and cloacal swab samples. Copy numbers obtained indicate virus load and shedding. Conclusions: It shows that a selective detection of FAdV 8b within serotype is possible. It can be useful for rapid detection and diagnosis of the disease, virus quantification and differentiation within species, determination of vaccination failure, and efficacy especially the virus load in the target organ and shedding.

Cellular transcripts of chicken brain tissues in response to H5N1 and Newcastle disease virus infection.

BACKGROUND: Highly-pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and Newcastle disease (ND) viruses are the two most important poultry viruses in the world, with the ability to cause classic central nervous system dysfunction in poultry and migratory birds. To elucidate the mechanisms of neurovirulence caused by these viruses, a preliminary study was design to analyze host's cellular responses during infections of these viruses. METHODS: An improved mRNA differential display technique (Gene Fishing™) was undertaken to analyze differentially expressed transcripts regulated during HPAI H5N1 and velogenic neurotropic NDV infections of whole brain of chickens. The identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) was made possible as this technique uses annealing control primers that generate reproducible, authentic and long PCR products that are detectable on agarose gels. RESULTS: Twenty-three genes were identified to be significantly regulated during infections with both viruses, where ten of the genes have been selected for validation using a TaqMan® based real time quantitative PCR assay. Some of the identified genes demonstrated to be key factors involving the cytoskeletal system, neural signal transduction and protein folding during stress. Interestingly, Septin 5, one of the genes isolated from HPAI H5N1-infected brain tissues has been reported to participate in the pathogenic process of Parkinson's disease. CONCLUSIONS: In this limited study, the differentially expressed genes of infected brain tissues regulated by the viruses were found not to be identical, thus suggesting that their neurovirulence and neuropathogenesis may not share similar mechanisms and pathways.

Cellular transcripts regulated during infections with Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Avian Influenza virus in 3 host systems.

BACKGROUND: Highly pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) virus is able to infect many hosts and the virus replicates in high levels in the respiratory tract inducing severe lung lesions. The pathogenesis of the disease is actually the outcome of the infection as determined by complex host-virus interactions involving the functional kinetics of large numbers of participating genes. Understanding the genes and proteins involved in host cellular responses are therefore, critical for the elucidation of the mechanisms of infection. METHODS: Differentially expressed transcripts regulated in a H5N1 infections of whole lung organ of chicken, in-vitro chick embryo lung primary cell culture (CeLu) and a continuous Madin Darby Canine Kidney cell line was undertaken. An improved mRNA differential display technique (Gene Fishing™) using annealing control primers that generates reproducible, authentic and long PCR products that are detectable on agarose gels was used for the identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Seven of the genes have been selected for validation using a TaqMan® based real time quantitative PCR assay. RESULTS: Thirty seven known and unique differentially expressed genes from lungs of chickens, CeLu and MDCK cells were isolated. Among the genes isolated and identified include heat shock proteins, Cyclin D2, Prenyl (decaprenyl) diphosphate synthase, IL-8 and many other unknown genes. The quantitative real time RT-PCR assay data showed that the transcription kinetics of the selected genes were clearly altered during infection by the Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza virus. CONCLUSION: The Gene Fishing™ technique has allowed for the first time, the isolation and identification of sequences of host cellular genes regulated during H5N1 virus infection. In this limited study, the differentially expressed genes in the three host systems were not identical, thus suggesting that their responses to the H5N1 infection may not share similar mechanisms and pathways.

Bioinformatics analysis of rhinovirus capsid proteins VP1-4 sequences for cross-serotype vaccine development.

BACKGROUND: Rhinoviruses (RV) are associated with the development and exacerbations of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. They've also been linked to more severe diseases like pneumonia, acute bronchiolitis, croup, and otitis media. Because of the hypervariable sequences in the same serotypes, no effective vaccine against rhinoviruses has been developed to date. With the availability of new full-length genome sequences for all RV-A and RV-B serotyped strains, this study used bioinformatics to find a suitable RV strain with the highest similarity matrices to the other strains. METHODS: The full genomic sequences of all known different RV-A and -B prototypes were downloaded from the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and divided into minor low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) and major intercellular adhesion molecule groups (ICAM). The sequences were edited using Biological Sequence Alignment Editor, v 7.2.0 (BioEdit software) to study each capsid protein (VP1, VP2, VP3, and VP4) and analyzed using the EMBL-EBI ClustalW server and the more current Clustal Omega tool for the calculation of the identities and similarities. RESULTS: We analyzed and predicted immunogenic motifs from capsid proteins that are conserved across distinct RV serotypes using a bioinformatics technique. The amino acid sequences of VP3 were found to be the most varied, while VP4 was the most conserved protein among all RV-A and RV-B strains. Among all strains studied, RV-74 demonstrated the highest degree of homology to other strains and could be a potential genetic source for recombinant protein production. Nine highly conserved regions with a minimum length of 9-mers were identified, which could serve as potential immune targets against rhinoviruses. CONCLUSION: Therefore, bioinformatics analysis conducted in the current study has paved the way for the selection of immunogenic targets. Bioinformatically, the ideal strain's capsid protein is suggested to contain the most common RVs immunogenic sites.

Molecular characterization of partial fusion gene and C-terminus extension length of haemagglutinin-neuraminidase gene of recently isolated Newcastle disease virus isolates in Malaysia.

BACKGROUND: Newcastle disease (ND), caused by Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a highly contagious disease of birds and has been one of the major causes of economic losses in the poultry industry. Despite routine vaccination programs, sporadic cases have occasionally occurred in the country and remain a constant threat to commercial poultry. Hence, the present study was aimed to characterize NDV isolates obtained from clinical cases in various locations of Malaysia between 2004 and 2007 based on sequence and phylogenetic analysis of partial F gene and C-terminus extension length of HN gene. RESULTS: The coding region of eleven NDV isolates fusion (F) gene and carboxyl terminal region of haemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) gene including extensions were amplified by reverse transcriptase PCR and directly sequenced. All the isolates have shown to have non-synonymous to synonymous base substitution rate ranging between 0.081 - 0.264 demonstrating presence of negative selection. Analysis based on F gene showed the characterized isolates possess three different types of protease cleavage site motifs; namely 112RRQKRF117, 112RRRKRF117 and 112GRQGRL117 and appear to show maximum identities with isolates in the region such as cockatoo/14698/90 (Indonesia), Ch/2000 (China), local isolate AF2240 indicating the high similarity of isolates circulating in the South East Asian countries. Meanwhile, one of the isolates resembles commonly used lentogenic vaccine strains. On further characterization of the HN gene, Malaysian isolates had C-terminus extensions of 0, 6 and 11 amino acids. Analysis of the phylogenetic tree revealed that the existence of three genetic groups; namely, genotype II, VII and VIII. CONCLUSIONS: The study concluded that the occurrence of three types of NDV genotypes and presence of varied carboxyl terminus extension lengths among Malaysian isolates incriminated for sporadic cases.

Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of Newcastle disease virus genotypes isolated in Malaysia between 2004 and 2005.

Sequence analysis of the fusion (F) gene of eight Malaysian NDV isolates showed that all the isolates were categorized as velogenic viruses, with the F cleavage site motif (112)R-R-Q-K-R(116) or (112)R-R-R-K-R(116) at the C-terminus of the F(2) protein and phenylalanine (F) at residue 117 at the N-terminus of the F(1) protein. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all of the isolates were grouped in two distinct clusters under sub-genotype VIId. The isolates were about 4.8-11.7% genetically distant from sub-genotypes VIIa, VIIb, VIIc and VIIe. When the nucleotide sequences of the eight Malaysian isolates were compared phylogenetically to those of the old published local isolates, it was found that genotype VIII, VII, II and I viruses exist in Malaysia and caused sporadic infections. It is suggested that genotype VII viruses were responsible for most of the outbreaks in recent years.

Protective efficacy of inactivated Newcastle disease virus vaccines prepared in two different oil-based adjuvants.

Despite the availability of Newcastle disease (ND) vaccines for more than six decades, disease outbreaks continue to occur with huge economic consequences to the global poultry industry. The aim of this study is to develop a safe and effective inactivated vaccine based on a recently isolated Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strain IBS025/13 and evaluate its protective efficacy in chicken following challenge with a highly virulent genotype VII isolate. Firstly, high titre of IBS025/13 was exposed to various concentrations of binary ethylenimine (BEI) to determine the optimal conditions for complete inactivation of the virus. The inactivated virus was then prepared in form of a stable water-in-oil emulsion of black seed oil (BSO) or Freund's incomplete adjuvant (FIA) and used as vaccines in specific pathogen-free chicken. Efficacy of various vaccine preparations was also evaluated based on the ability of the vaccine to protect against clinical disease, mortality and virus shedding following challenge with highly virulent genotype\VII NDV isolate. The results indicate that exposure of NDV IBS025/13 to 10 mM of BEI for 21 h at 37 °C could completely inactivate the virus without tempering with the structural integrity of the viral hemagglutin-neuraminidase protein. More so, the inactivated vaccines adjuvanted with either BSO- or FIA-induced high hemagglutination inhibition antibody titre that protected the vaccinated birds against clinical disease and in some cases virus shedding, especially when used together with live attenuated vaccines. Thus, genotype VII-based NDV-inactivated vaccines formulated in BSO could substantially improve poultry disease control particularly when combined with live attenuated vaccines.

Complete Genome Sequence Analysis and Characterization of Selected Iron Regulation Genes of Pasteurella Multocida Serotype A Strain PMTB2.1.

Although more than 100 genome sequences of Pasteurella multocida are available, comprehensive and complete genome sequence analysis is limited. This study describes the analysis of complete genome sequence and pathogenomics of P. multocida strain PMTB2.1. The genome of PMTB2.1 has 2176 genes with more than 40 coding sequences associated with iron regulation and 140 virulence genes including the complete tad locus. The tad locus includes several previously uncharacterized genes such as flp2, rcpC and tadV genes. A transposable phage resembling to Mu phages was identified in P. multocida that has not been identified in any other serotype yet. The multi-locus sequence typing analysis assigned the PMTB2.1 genome sequence as type ST101, while the comparative genome analysis showed that PMTB2.1 is closely related to other P. multocida strains with the genomic distance of less than 0.13. The expression profiling of iron regulating-genes of PMTB2.1 was characterized under iron-limited environment. Results showed significant changes in the expression profiles of iron-regulating genes (p < 0.05) whereas the highest expression of fecE gene (281 fold) at 30 min suggests utilization of the outer-membrane proteins system in iron acquisition at an early stage of growth. This study showed the phylogenomic relatedness of P. multocida and improved annotation of important genes and functional characterization of iron-regulating genes of importance to the bacterial growth.

Hexon and fiber gene changes in an attenuated fowl adenovirus isolate from Malaysia in embryonated chicken eggs and its infectivity in chickens.

Fowl adenovirus (FAdV) is distributed worldwide and causes economic losses in the poultry industry. The objectives of this study were to determine the hexon and fiber gene changes in an attenuated FAdV isolate from Malaysia in specific pathogen-free chicken embryonated eggs (SPF CEE) and its infectivity in commercial broiler chickens. SPF CEE were inoculated with 0.1 mL FAdV inoculum via the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) for 20 consecutive passages. The isolate at passage 20 (E20), with a virus titer of 108.7TCID50/mL (TCID50, 50% tissue culture infective dose), was inoculated (0.5 mL) into one-day-old commercial broiler chicks either via oral or intraperitoneal routes. The study demonstrated that 100% embryonic mortality was recorded from E2 to E20 with a delayed pattern at E17 onwards. The lesions were confined to the liver and CAM. Substitutions of amino acids in the L1 loop of hexon at positions 49 and 66, and in the knob of fiber at positions 318 and 322 were recorded in the E20 isolate. The isolate belongs to serotype 8b and is non-pathogenic to broiler chickens, but it is able to induce a FAdV antibody titer. It appears that molecular changes in the L1 loop of hexon and the knob of fiber are markers for FAdV infectivity.

Detection of Inter-Lineage Natural Recombination in Avian Paramyxovirus Serotype 1 Using Simplified Deep Sequencing Platform.

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is a prototype member of avian paramyxovirus serotype 1 (APMV-1), which causes severe and contagious disease in the commercial poultry and wild birds. Despite extensive vaccination programs and other control measures, the disease remains endemic around the globe especially in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Being a single serotype, genotype II based vaccines remained most acceptable means of immunization. However, the evidence is emerging on failures of vaccines mainly due to evolving nature of the virus and higher genetic gaps between vaccine and field strains of APMV-1. Most of the epidemiological and genetic characterizations of APMVs are based on conventional methods, which are prone to mask the diverse population of viruses in complex samples. In this study, we report the application of a simple, robust, and less resource-demanding methodology for the whole genome sequencing of NDV, using next-generation sequencing (NGS) on the Illumina MiSeq platform. Using this platform, we sequenced full genomes of five virulent Malaysian NDV strains collected during 2004-2013. All isolates clustered within highly prevalent lineage 5 (specifically in lineage 5a); however, a significantly greater genetic divergence was observed in isolates collected from 2004 to 2011. Interestingly, genetic characterization of one isolate collected in 2013 (IBS025/13) shown natural recombination between lineage 2 and lineage 5. In the event of recombination, the isolate (IBS025/13) carried nucleocapsid protein consist of 55-1801 nucleotides (nts) and near-complete phosphoprotein (1804-3254 nts) genes of lineage 2 whereas surface glycoproteins (fusion, hemagglutinin-neuraminidase) and large polymerase of lineage 5. Additionally, the recombinant virus has a genome size of 15,186 nts which is characteristics for the old genotypes I-IV isolated from 1930 to 1960. Taken together, we report the occurrence of a natural recombination in circulating strains of NDV in commercial poultry using NGS methodology. These findings will not only highlight the potential of RNA viruses to evolve but also to consider the application of NGS in revealing the genetic diversity of these viruses in clinical materials. Factors that drive these evolutionary events and subsequent impact of these divergences on clinical outcome of the disease warrant future investigations.

Comparative analysis of viral RNA and apoptotic cells in bursae following infection with infectious bursal disease virus.

Specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chickens infected with very virulent (vv) infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) UPM94/273 developed lower pathogenicity compared to UPM97/61. Sequence analysis indicated that UPM94/273 is an exceptional vvIBDV. In this study, a SYBR Green I based real-time reverse transcriptase reaction assay was developed to measure viral RNA in the bursae of SPF chickens infected with IBDV. Specificity of the amplified products was confirmed by melting temperature analysis. A linear relationship was observed between the amount of input viral RNA and the threshold values for IBDV-specific product over five log10 dilutions. The viral RNA level following infection with UPM94/273 was significantly higher at day 1 and 2 post-inoculation (p.i.) compared to UPM97/61 infected chickens. However, chickens infected with UPM97/61 had significantly higher numbers of bursal cells undergoing apoptosis compared to UPM94/273 infected chickens. In both groups, the number of apoptotic cells and viral RNA levels peak at day 3 p.i. This study indicates that UPM97/61 and UPM94/273 have different efficiency of replication and percentage of apoptotic cells in bursae during the acute phase of IBDV infection.

Polymerase chain reaction-based discrimination of viable from non-viable Mycoplasma gallisepticum.

The present study was based on the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of the 16S ribosomal nucleic acid (rRNA) of Mycoplasma for detection of viable Mycoplasma gallisepticum. To determine the stability of M. gallisepticum 16S rRNA in vitro, three inactivation methods were used and the suspensions were stored at different temperatures. The 16S rRNA of M. gallisepticum was detected up to approximately 20-25 h at 37 °C, 22-25 h at 16 °C, and 23-27 h at 4 °C. The test, therefore, could detect viable or recently dead M. gallisepticum (< 20 h). The RT-PCR method was applied during an in vivo study of drug efficacy under experimental conditions, where commercial broiler-breeder eggs were inoculated with M. gallisepticum into the yolk. Hatched chicks that had been inoculated in ovo were treated with Macrolide 1. The method was then applied in a flock of day 0 chicks with naturally acquired vertical transmission of M. gallisepticum, treated with Macrolide 2. Swabs of the respiratory tract were obtained for PCR and RT-PCR evaluations to determine the viability of M. gallisepticum. This study proved that the combination of both PCR and RT-PCR enables detection and differentiation of viable from non-viable M. gallisepticum.

Insulin secreted from genetically engineered intestinal cells reduces blood glucose levels in diabetic mice.

Poorly controlled diabetes mellitus can result in serious complications. Gene therapy is increasingly being considered as an alternative approach to treat diabetes, because of its ability to induce physiological insulin secretion and it allows patients to escape insulin injections. The properties of gut K and L-cells, including glucose sensitivity, the ability to process insulin and a regulated secretion pathway support their use as surrogate ß-cells. Previous in vitro studies have provided sufficient evidence supporting the use of these cells for gene therapy studies. Therefore, we examined the ability of K and L-cells to produce insulin in diabetic mice. Chitosan nanoparticles were used to transfer the insulin gene into intestinal cells via oral administration. The efficiency of chitosan as a gene vehicle was investigated through the use of reporter gene. Insulin mRNA and protein expression levels were measured by RT-PCR and ELISA, respectively. Blood glucose testing revealed that this treatment reduced glucose levels in diabetic mice. The decrease in blood glucose level in the first week of treatment was greater in mice with K-cell specific insulin expression compared with mice with L-cell-specific insulin expression. These results indicate that inducing insulin secretion in K-cells conferred a quicker response to gene therapy.

Immunochromatographic gold-based test strip for rapid detection of Infectious bursal disease virus antibodies.

The immunochromatographic assay is an alternative method for simple and rapid detection of Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) in chickens using colloidal gold-antibody conjugate. The whole-virus antigen of IBDV (UPM04190 isolate) and the high-affinity polyclonal antibodies directed against IBDV were blotted onto nitrocellulose membranes for test and control lines, respectively. Evaluation of the strip was performed using serum samples from experimentally and naturally infected chickens. The results showed that the test strip was more sensitive than the commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) because it could detect a dilution factor up to 120,000 (250 ELISA units) for positive samples. It was also specific, in that it detected IBDV antibodies and did not cross-react with antibodies to other chicken viruses. The method was rapid (2 min) in both clinical and field environments with samples needing only a minimum amount (50 µl) of blood to produce an acceptable detection signal. The pen-site test strip proved successful in monitoring the immune status of chickens against the IBDV infection.

Descriptive distribution and phylogenetic analysis of feline infectious peritonitis virus isolates of Malaysia.

The descriptive distribution and phylogeny of feline coronaviruses (FCoVs) were studied in cats suspected of having feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) in Malaysia. Ascitic fluids and/or biopsy samples were subjected to a reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) targeted for a conserved region of 3'untranslated region (3'UTR) of the FCoV genome. Eighty nine percent of the sampled animals were positive for the presence of FCoV. Among the FCoV positive cats, 80% of cats were males and 64% were below 2 years of age. The FCoV positive cases included 56% domestic short hair (DSH), 40% Persian, and 4% Siamese cats. The nucleotide sequences of 10 selected amplified products from FIP cases were determined. The sequence comparison revealed that the field isolates had 96% homology with a few point mutations. The extent of homology decreased to 93% when compared with reference strains. The overall branching pattern of phylogenetic tree showed two distinct clusters, where all Malaysian isolates fall into one main genetic cluster. These findings provided the first genetic information of FCoV in Malaysia.

Prevalence of feline coronavirus in two cat populations in Malaysia.

The prevalence of feline coronavirus (FCoV) was studied in two catteries in Malaysia. Rectal swabs or faecal samples were collected from a total of 44 clinically healthy Persian purebred and mix-breed cats. RNA extracted from the faecal material was subjected to a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using primers flanking for a conserved region of the virus genome. The overall prevalence of FCoV infection was 84% and the infection rate was higher in Persian purebred cats (96%) than mix-breed cats (70%). There was no significant association between the age or gender of tested cats and shedding the virus. This study is the first PCR-based survey for FCoV in Malaysia and showed the ubiquitous presence of FCoV in Malaysian cat colonies.