The Role of Formyl Peptide Receptors in Permanent and Low-Grade Inflammation: Helicobacter pylori Infection as a Model.

Formyl peptide receptors (FPRs) are cell surface pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), belonging to the chemoattractant G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) family. They play a key role in the innate immune system, regulating both the initiation and the resolution of the inflammatory response. FPRs were originally identified as receptors with high binding affinity for bacteria or mitochondria N-formylated peptides. However, they can also bind a variety of structurally different ligands. Among FPRs, formyl peptide receptor-like 1 (FPRL1) is the most versatile, recognizing N-formyl peptides, non-formylated peptides, and synthetic molecules. In addition, according to the ligand nature, FPRL1 can mediate either pro- or anti-inflammatory responses. Hp(2-20), a Helicobacter pylori-derived, non-formylated peptide, is a potent FPRL1 agonist, participating in Helicobacter pylori-induced gastric inflammation, thus contributing to the related site or not-site specific diseases. The aim of this review is to provide insights into the role of FPRs in H. pylori-associated chronic inflammation, which suggests this receptor as potential target to mitigate both microbial and sterile inflammatory diseases.

Lactoferrin, Quercetin, and Hydroxyapatite Act Synergistically against Pseudomonas fluorescens.

Pseudomonas fluorescens is an opportunistic, psychotropic pathogen that can live in different environments, such as plant, soil, or water surfaces, and it is associated with food spoilage. Bioactive compounds can be used as antimicrobials and can be added into packaging systems. Quercetin and lactoferrin are the best candidates for the development of a complex of the two molecules absorbed on bio combability structure as hydroxyapatite. The minimum inhibiting concentration (MIC) of single components and of the complex dropped down the single MIC value against Pseudomonas fluorescens. Characterization analysis of the complex was performed by means SEM and zeta-potential analysis. Then, the synergistic activity (Csyn) of single components and the complex was calculated. Finally, the synergistic activity was confirmed, testing in vitro its anti-inflammatory activity on U937 macrophage-like human cell line. In conclusion, the peculiarity of our study consists of optimizing the specific propriety of each component: the affinity of lactoferrin for LPS; that of quercetin for the bacterial membrane. These proprieties make the complex a good candidate in food industry as antimicrobial compounds, and as functional food.

Caulerpin Mitigates Helicobacter pylori-Induced Inflammation via Formyl Peptide Receptors.

The identification of novel strategies to control Helicobacter pylori (Hp)-associated chronic inflammation is, at present, a considerable challenge. Here, we attempt to combat this issue by modulating the innate immune response, targeting formyl peptide receptors (FPRs), G-protein coupled receptors that play key roles in both the regulation and the resolution of the innate inflammatory response. Specifically, we investigated, in vitro, whether Caulerpin-a bis-indole alkaloid isolated from algae of the genus Caulerpa-could act as a molecular antagonist scaffold of FPRs. We showed that Caulerpin significantly reduces the immune response against Hp culture filtrate, by reverting the FPR2-related signaling cascade and thus counteracting the inflammatory reaction triggered by Hp peptide Hp(2-20). Our study suggests Caulerpin to be a promising therapeutic or adjuvant agent for the attenuation of inflammation triggered by Hp infection, as well as its related adverse clinical outcomes.

Screen Printed Based Impedimetric Immunosensor for Rapid Detection of Escherichia coli in Drinking Water.

The development of a simple and low cost electrochemical impedance immunosensor based on screen printed gold electrode for rapid detection of Escherichia coli in water is reported. The immunosensor is fabricated by immobilizing anti-E. coli antibodies onto a gold surface in a covalent way by the photochemical immobilization technique, a simple procedure able to bind antibodies upright onto gold surfaces. Impedance spectra are recorded in 0.01 M phosphate buffer solution (PBS) containing 10 mM Fe(CN)63-/Fe(CN)64- as redox probe. The Nyquist plots can be modelled with a modified Randles circuit, identifying the charge transfer resistance Rct as the relevant parameter after the immobilization of antibodies, the blocking with BSA and the binding of E. coli. The introduction of a standard amplification procedure leads to a significant enhancement of the impedance increase, which allows one to measure E. coli in drinking water with a limit of detection of 3 × 101 CFU mL-1 while preserving the rapidity of the method that requires only 1 h to provide a "yes/no" response. Additionally, by applying the Langmuir adsorption model, we are able to describe the change of Rct in terms of the "effective" electrode, which is modified by the detection of the analyte whose microscopic conducting properties can be quantified.

An In Vitro Model to Investigate the Role of Helicobacter pylori in Type 2 Diabetes, Obesity, Alzheimer's Disease and Cardiometabolic Disease.

Helicobacter pylori (Hp) is a Gram-negative bacterium colonizing the human stomach. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) analysis of intracellular human gastric carcinoma cells (MKN-28) incubated with the Hp cell filtrate (Hpcf) displays high levels of amino acids, including the branched chain amino acids (BCAA) isoleucine, leucine, and valine. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Array Technology shows upregulation of mammalian Target Of Rapamycin Complex 1 (mTORC1), inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. The review of literature indicates that these traits are common to type 2 diabetes, obesity, Alzheimer's diseases, and cardiometabolic disease. Here, we demonstrate how Hp may modulate these traits. Hp induces high levels of amino acids, which, in turn, activate mTORC1, which is the complex regulating the metabolism of the host. A high level of BCAA and upregulation of mTORC1 are, thus, directly regulated by Hp. Furthermore, Hp modulates inflammation, which is functional to the persistence of chronic infection and the asymptomatic state of the host. Finally, in order to induce autophagy and sustain bacterial colonization of gastric mucosa, the Hp toxin VacA localizes within mitochondria, causing fragmentation of these organelles, depletion of ATP, and oxidative stress. In conclusion, our in vitro disease model replicates the main traits common to the above four diseases and shows how Hp may potentially manipulate them.

Role of phage ϕ1 in two strains of Salmonella Rissen, sensitive and resistant to phage ϕ1.

BACKGROUND: The study describes the Salmonella Rissen phage ϕ1 isolated from the ϕ1-sensitive Salmonella Rissen strain RW. The same phage was then used to select the resistant strain RRϕ1+, which can harbour or not ϕ1. RESULTS: Following this approach, we found that ϕ1, upon excision from RW cells with mitomycin, behaves as a temperate phage: lyses host cells and generates phage particles; instead, upon spontaneous excision from RRϕ1+ cells, it does not generate phage particles; causes loss of phage resistance; switches the O-antigen from the smooth to the rough phenotype, and favors the transition of Salmonella Rissen from the planktonic to the biofilm growth. The RW and RRϕ1+ strains differ by 10 genes; of these, only two (phosphomannomutase_1 and phosphomannomutase_2; both involved in the mannose synthesis pathway) display significant differences at the expression levels. This result suggests that phage resistance is associated with these two genes. CONCLUSIONS: Phage ϕ1 displays the unusual property of behaving as template as well as lytic phage. This feature was used by the phage to modulate several phases of Salmonella Rissen lifestyle.

Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.) L.: Micromorphology, Essential Oil Composition, and Its Potential as an Alternative Biocontrol Product.

Artemisia arborescens is a Mediterranean evergreen shrub, with silver grey-green tomentose leaves and a strong scent. It has various ethnopharmacological uses and its secondary metabolites have demonstrated antimicrobial, antiviral, pharmaceutical, phytotoxic, and insecticidal activities. Different extracts obtained from aerial parts of this species are known for their allelopathic effect, but similar studies on its essential oil (EO) are lacking. Therefore, we carried out a pharmacognostic study, obtaining the characterization of the secretory structures and the EO produced. Trans-thujone and camphor are the main components, followed by aromadendrene, camphene, and 8-cedren-13-ol. EO phytotoxic activity was tested on weed plants (Lolium multiflorum Lam. and Sinapis arvensis L.) and crops (Raphanus sativus L. and Cucumis sativus L.), showing inhibition on both germination and radical growth of the two weeds tested. The effects of the EO against the bacterial plant pathogens Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Gram-) and Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Gram+) was also assayed. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was observed when it was used undiluted [100% v/v], and growth inhibition when diluted at different doses. The antimicrobial activity was also confirmed by the cellular material release and biofilm formation assays. The overall data show that A. arborescens EO can find application as a potential alternative biocontrol product against weeds and plant pathogens. This goal is particularly important from the perspective of replacing synthetic pesticides with natural products, which safeguard both the environment and the health of consumers.

Eucalyptus cinerea and E. nicholii by-Products as Source of Bioactive Compounds for Agricultural Applications.

The cultivation of different species of Eucalyptus has recently expanded in Liguria (Italy) due to the growing demand of the North European floricultural market. Eucalyptus tree branches are cut and selected for their quality, resulting in large amounts of waste biomass to be disposed of. The aim of our study was to evaluate the phytotoxic and antimicrobial activities of essential oils (EOs) from pruning wastes of E. cinerea (EC) and E. nicholii (EN), for potential applications in agriculture. Phytochemical analyses showed eucalyptol (1,8-cineole) as the major component in both EOs, but the EO yield of EN was higher than that of EC, in agreement with a significantly higher oil gland density on EN leaves. EOs from both species showed phytotoxicity on both weeds tested, but no significant inhibition on horticultural crop seed germination, except for Raphanus sativus. The EO from EC showed the strongest antibacterial activity, while the EO from EN showed the strongest antifungal activity. Concluding, EOs from Eucalyptus pruning may be used as possible alternatives to synthetic herbicides and pesticides, acting as antimicrobial and antifungal agents, thus representing a safe strategy for crop management programs.

Bacteriophage-Resistant Salmonella rissen: An In Vitro Mitigated Inflammatory Response.

Non-typhoid Salmonella (NTS) represents one of the major causes of foodborne diseases, which are made worse by the increasing emergence of antibiotic resistance. Thus, NTS are a significant and common public health concern. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether selection for phage-resistance alters bacterial phenotype, making this approach suitable for candidate vaccine preparation. We therefore compared two strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Rissen: RR (the phage-resistant strain) and RW (the phage-sensitive strain) in order to investigate a potential cost associated with the bacterium virulence. We tested the ability of both RR and RW to infect phagocytic and non-phagocytic cell lines, the activity of virulence factors associated with the main Type-3 secretory system (T3SS), as well as the canonic inflammatory mediators. The mutant RR strain-compared to the wildtype RW strain-induced in the host a weaker innate immune response. We suggest that the mitigated inflammatory response very likely is due to structural modifications of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Our results indicate that phage-resistance might be exploited as a means for the development of LPS-based antibacterial vaccines.

An Innovative Approach to Control H. pylori-Induced Persistent Inflammation and Colonization.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a Gram-negative bacterium which colonizes the human stomach. The ability of H. pylori to evade the host defense system and the emergence of antibiotic resistant strains result in bacteria persistence and chronic inflammation, which leads to both severe gastric and extra-gastric diseases. Consequently, innovative approaches able to overcome H. pylori clinical outcomes are needed. In this work, we develop a novel non-toxic therapy based on the synergistic action of H. pylori phage and lactoferrin adsorbed on hydroxyapatite nanoparticles, which effectively impairs bacteria colonization and minimizes the damage of the host pro-inflammatory response.

Antibiofilm Activity of a Trichoderma Metabolite against Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris, Alone and in Association with a Phage.

Biofilm protects bacteria against the host's immune system and adverse environmental conditions. Several studies highlight the efficacy of lytic phages in the prevention and eradication of bacterial biofilms. In this study, the lytic activity of Xccφ1 (Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris-specific phage) was evaluated in combination with 6-pentyl-α-pyrone (a secondary metabolite produced by Trichoderma atroviride P1) and the mineral hydroxyapatite. Then, the antibiofilm activity of this interaction, called a φHA6PP complex, was investigated using confocal laser microscopy under static and dynamic conditions. Additionally, the mechanism used by the complex to modulate the genes (rpf, gumB, clp and manA) involved in the biofilm formation and stability was also studied. Our results demonstrated that Xccφ1, alone or in combination with 6PP and HA, interfered with the gene pathways involved in the formation of biofilm. This approach can be used as a model for other biofilm-producing bacteria.

Bacteriophages Promote Metabolic Changes in Bacteria Biofilm.

Bacterial biofilm provides bacteria with resistance and protection against conventional antimicrobial agents and the host immune system. Bacteriophages are known to move across the biofilm to make it permeable to antimicrobials. Mineral hydroxyapatite (HA) can improve the lytic activity of bacteriophages, and, together with eicosanoic acid (C20:0), can destroy the biofilm structure. Here, we demonstrate the efficacy of the combined use of phage, HA and C20:0 against Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris (Xcc) biofilm. We used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabolomics to investigate the molecular determinants related to the lytic action, aiming at identifying the metabolic pathways dysregulated by phage treatment. Furthermore, we identified specific markers (amino acids, lactate and galactomannan) which are involved in the control of biofilm stability. Our data show that Xccφ1, alone or in combination with HA and C20:0, interferes with the metabolic pathways involved in biofilm formation. The approach described here might be extended to other biofilm-producing bacteria.

The Union Is Strength: The Synergic Action of Long Fatty Acids and a Bacteriophage against Xanthomonas campestris Biofilm.

Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris is known as the causative agent of black rot disease, which attacks mainly crucifers, severely lowering their global productivity. One of the main virulence factors of this pathogen is its capability to penetrate and form biofilm structures in the xylem vessels. The discovery of novel approaches to crop disease management is urgent and a possible treatment could be aimed at the eradication of biofilm, although anti-biofilm approaches in agricultural microbiology are still rare. Considering the multifactorial nature of biofilm, an effective approach against Xanthomonas campestris implies the use of a multi-targeted or combinatorial strategy. In this paper, an anti-biofilm strategy based on the use of fatty acids and the bacteriophage (Xccφ1)-hydroxyapatite complex was optimized against Xanthomonas campestris mature biofilm. The synergic action of these elements was demonstrated and the efficient removal of Xanthomonas campestris mature biofilm was also proven in a flow cell system, making the proposed approach an effective solution to enhance plant survival in Xanthomonas campestris infections. Moreover, the molecular mechanisms responsible for the efficacy of the proposed treatment were explored.

Interaction between MyD88, TIRAP and IL1RL1 against Helicobacter pylori infection.

The Toll-interleukin 1 receptor superfamily includes the genes interleukin 1 receptor-like 1 (IL1RL1), Toll like receptors (TLRs), myeloid differentiation primary-response 88 (MyD88), and MyD88 adaptor-like (TIRAP). This study describes the interaction between MyD88, TIRAP and IL1RL1 against Helicobacter pylori infection. Cases and controls were genotyped at the polymorphic sites MyD88 rs6853, TIRAP rs8177374 and IL1RL1 rs11123923. The results show that specific combinations of IL1RL1-TIRAP (AA-CT; P: 2,8 × 10-17) and MyD88-TIRAP-IL1RL1 (AA-CT-AA; P: 1,4 × 10-8) - but not MyD88 alone-act synergistically against Helicobacter pylori. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) clearly discriminates cases from controls by highlighting significantly different expression levels of several metabolites (tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, branched-chain amino acids, short chain fatty acids, glucose, sucrose, urea, etc.). NMR also identifies the following dysregulated metabolic pathways associated to Helicobacter pylori infection: phenylalanine and tyrosine metabolism, pterine biosynthesis, starch and sucrose metabolism, and galactose metabolism. Furthermore, NMR discriminates between the cases heterozygous at the IL1RL1 locus from those homozygous at the same locus. Heterozygous patients are characterized by high levels of lactate, and IL1RL1-both associated with anti-inflammatory activity-and low levels of the pro-inflammatory molecules IL-1ß, TNF-α, COX-2, and IL-6.

Plant Dynamic Metabolic Response to Bacteriophage Treatment After Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris Infection.

Periodic epidemics of black rot disease occur worldwide causing substantial yield losses. Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) represents one of the most common bacteria able to cause the above disease in cruciferous plants such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and Arabidopsis thaliana. In agriculture, several strategies are being developed to contain the Xanthomonas infection. The use of bacteriophages could represent a valid and efficient approach to overcome this widespread phenomenon. Several studies have highlighted the potential usefulness of implementing phage therapy to control plant diseases as well as Xcc infection. In the present study, we characterized the effect of a lytic phage on the plant Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes infected with Xcc and, for the first time, the correlated plant metabolic response. The results highlighted the potential benefits of bacteriophages: reduction of bacterium proliferation, alteration of the biofilm structure and/or modulation of the plant metabolism and defense response.

Biomimetic hydroxyapatite nanocrystals are an active carrier for Salmonella bacteriophages.

PURPOSE: The use of bacteriophages represents a valid alternative to conventional antimicrobial treatments, overcoming the widespread bacterial antibiotic resistance phenomenon. In this work, we evaluated whether biomimetic hydroxyapatite (HA) nanocrystals are able to enhance some properties of bacteriophages. The final goal of this study was to demonstrate that biomimetic HA nanocrystals can be used for bacteriophage delivery in the context of bacterial infections, and contribute - at the same time - to enhance some of the biological properties of the same bacteriophages such as stability, preservation, antimicrobial activity, and so on. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Phage isolation and characterization were carried out by using Mitomycin C and following double-layer agar technique. The biomimetic HA water suspension was synthesized in order to obtain nanocrystals with plate-like morphology and nanometric dimensions. The interaction of phages with the HA was investigated by dynamic light scattering and Zeta potential analyses. The cytotoxicity and intracellular killing activities of the phage-HA complex were evaluated in human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. The bacterial inhibition capacity of the complex was assessed on chicken minced meat samples infected with Salmonella Rissen. RESULTS: Our data highlighted that the biomimetic HA nanocrystal-bacteriophage complex was more stable and more effective than phages alone in all tested experimental conditions. CONCLUSION: Our results evidenced the important contribution of biomimetic HA nanocrystals: they act as an excellent carrier for bacteriophage delivery and enhance its biological characteristics. This study confirmed the significant role of the mineral HA when it is complexed with biological entities like bacteriophages, as it has been shown for molecules such as lactoferrin.

Structural data and immunomodulatory properties of a water-soluble heteroglycan extracted from the mycelium of an Italian isolate of Ganoderma lucidum.

Mushrooms produce a wide range of bioactive polysaccharides, different from each other in chemical structure and biological effects. In the last years, the idea to develop functional foods or drugs containing fungal polysaccharides is attracting great attention. Fruiting bodies of Basidiomycetes Ganoderma lucidum are commonly used in Oriental medicine to treat several disorders. G. lucidum polysaccharides - mainly ß-glucans and heteroglycans - have numerous biological properties such as antitumour and immunomodulatory activities. This report shows, by gene expression analyses and bioenergetic assays, immunomodulatory properties and capacity to improve glucose metabolism of a water-soluble heteroglycan extracted from mycelium of an Italian isolate of G. lucidum. The findings suggest the use of the heteroglycan as probiotic or ingredient in functional foods, being easy to produce and disperse in a food matrix thanks to its water-solubility. Heteroglycan could exert protective effects in pro-inflammatory conditions and benefits for people characterised by suppressed immune response.