An investigation of the relationships between angles and shapes of the hoof capsule and the distal phalanx.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: There is little scientific evidence to support the premise that poor foot conformation predisposes to foot pain and lameness. OBJECTIVES: To determine relationships between external characteristics of the hoof capsule and angles of the distal phalanx; to determine variability in shape of the distal phalanx; and to investigate association between distal phalanx angles and the injury causing lameness. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Feet were documented photographically and radiographically. Linear and angle measurements were obtained for the hoof capsule and distal phalanx and compared statistically. Horses were categorised according to injury group, and angles and linear ratios were compared between groups. RESULTS: There was modest correlation between hoof wall and heel angles and angles of the distal phalanx. There was variation in shape of the distal phalanx. There was no significant association between injury type and angles of the distal phalanx, although there was a trend for the angle of the dorsal aspect of the distal phalanx with the horizontal to be smaller in horses with injuries of the podotrochlear apparatus or deep digital flexor tendon compared with other groups. CONCLUSIONS: There are variations in shape of the distal phalanx largely due to differences in orientation of the concave solar border and the solar border to the horizontal. Variations in shape of the distal phalanx were not accurately correlated with external characteristics of the hoof capsule. There were weak associations between injury groups and angles of the distal phalanx. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Further work is required to elucidate risk factors for foot-related lameness.

Sudden death in racing Thoroughbred horses: an international multicentre study of post mortem findings.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: To improve the understanding of exercise related sudden death in Thoroughbred racehorses. OBJECTIVES: To describe the post mortem findings in cases of sudden death associated with exercise in 268 Thoroughbred racehorses. METHODS: Gross and histological post mortem findings of 268 cases of sudden death were collated and reviewed. Cases originated from 6 racing jurisdictions around the world. Sudden death was defined as acute collapse and death in a closely observed and previously apparently healthy Thoroughbred racehorse, during, or within one hour after, exercise. Cause of death as determined by the attending pathologist was categorised as definitive, presumptive or unexplained and compared between the different populations. Cardiopulmonary lesions recorded at post mortem examination were compared between different populations. RESULTS: Pathologists recorded a definitive cause of death in 53% (143/268) of cases. Major definitive causes of sudden death included cardiac failure, apparent pulmonary failure, pulmonary haemorrhage, haemorrhage associated with pelvic fractures or with idiopathic blood vessel rupture, and spinal cord injury. A presumptive cause of death was made in 25% (67/268) of cases and death remained unexplained in 22% (58/268) of cases. There were several statistically significant inter-population differences in the cause of death and in reporting of cardiopulmonary lesions. CONCLUSIONS: Sudden death can be attributed to a variety of causes. Causes of sudden death and the lesions found in cases of exercise-related sudden death are similar in different racing jurisdictions. However, the lesions are often not specific for the cause of death and determination of the cause of death is therefore affected by interpretation by the individual pathologist.

Catastrophic biaxial proximal sesamoid bone fractures in UK Thoroughbred races (1999-2004): horse characteristics and racing history.

REASON FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Catastrophic biaxial proximal sesamoid bone fractures (PSBF) have not yet been described in detail in the UK racing population. OBJECTIVES: To determine the incidence and relative risk (RR) of PSBF in different types of racing in the UK; and to describe horse-level characteristics and racing histories of horses sustaining these injuries. METHODS: Distal limbs were collected from all racehorses suffering catastrophic fractures during racing at all 59 racecourses in the UK, in a prospective study from February 1999 to December 2004. Post mortem investigation identified the anatomical location and type of fracture. Horse, racing history, race and racecourse details were obtained. Characteristics of the horses that sustained PSBF were described. The incidence and RR of PSBF in the different types of racing in the UK were calculated. RESULTS: Thirty-one horses suffered PSBF during the study period. The incidence of PSBF in all types of race was 0.63 per 10,000 starts (31/494,744). The incidence was highest in flat races on all weather surfaces (1.63 per 10,000 starts: 12/73,467; RR = 4.4 when compared to turf flat racing). Affected horses had an average age of 5.6 years and had started a mean of 28 races at the time of fracture. CONCLUSION AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: There is a strong association between type of racing surface and PSBF. Horses competing in flat races on all weather surfaces have an increased risk of PSBF. These fractures appear to happen in experienced horses with several starts, with few fractures occurring within the first season of racing. Further research should focus on identification of underlying pathology of these fractures. Epidemiological studies aimed at the identification of risk factors for PSBF in the UK racing population would require a large number of cases acquired over many years given the relatively low incidence of PSBF.

Quantitative evaluation of subchondral bone injury of the plantaro-lateral condyles of the third metatarsal bone in Thoroughbred horses identified using nuclear scintigraphy: 48 cases.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Increased radio-isotope uptake (IRU) in the subchondral bone of the plantaro-lateral condyle of the third metatarsus (MTIII) is a commonly reported scintigraphic finding and potential cause of lameness in UK Thoroughbred racehorses in training and has not been fully documented. OBJECTIVES: To characterise lameness attributable to IRU of the subchondral bone of MTIII, compare the scintigraphic findings of these horses with a normal population and evaluate the use of scintigraphy as an indicator of prognosis. HYPOTHESIS: IRU will be in significantly higher in horses with subchondral bone injury and will be related to prognosis and future racing performance. METHODS: Data were analysed from 48 horses in which subchondral bone injury of the plantaro-lateral condyle of MTIII had been diagnosed using nuclear scintigraphy and that met the inclusion criteria. Data recorded included age, sex, trainer, racing discipline, lameness assessment, treatment regimes, radiographic and scintigraphic findings, response to diagnostic analgesia where performed and racing performance pre- and post diagnosis. Region of interest (ROI) counts were obtained for the plantar condyle and the mid diaphysis from the latero-medial view, the ratio calculated and then compared with a control group of clinically unaffected horses. RESULTS: The mean condyle mid-diaphysis ROI ratio was significantly (P<0.001) higher in the affected population and with positively correlation (P = 0.024) with the level of lameness. The presence of radiographic findings had no significant effect on the ROI ratio. CONCLUSION: Subchondral bone injury of the plantar lateral condyles of MTIII is a significant cause of lameness in UK Thoroughbred racehorses. Nuclear scintigraphy is a useful diagnostic imaging modality in the detection of affected horses but is a poor indicator of prognosis for the condition. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Better understanding of the clinical manifestations, diagnosis of and prognosis for subchondral bone injury will benefit the Thoroughbred industry in the UK.

An investigation of the relationship between race performance and superficial digital flexor tendonitis in the Thoroughbred racehorse.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: There is limited information regarding the number of races and the period for evaluation of outcome which is critical for assessment of SDF tendonitis treatments. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the re-injury rate and racing performance of Thoroughbred racehorses that sustain SDF tendonitis in relation to matched controls in terms of number of races post treatment and maximum racing performance ratings before and after injury. STUDY DESIGN: Clinical records and racing histories of 401 racehorses with a first occurrence of SDF tendonitis diagnosed by ultrasonography. Controls were of the same age, sex and were horses training in the same establishment at the time of injury as the case horses and where the trainer reported that the horse had not had a previous SDF tendon injury or treatment. RESULTS: Eighty percent of both case and control horses returned to racing after the date of injury, and the re-injury proportion within 3 years of treatment was 53%. The difference in Racing Post Rating((max)) (RPR((max))) and the Racing Post Rating in the race immediately before the treatment date was significantly smaller in case horses (mean = 9.6 lbs; range = 0-75) compared to control horses (mean = 17.0 lbs; range = 0-79). No significant decrease in RPR((max)) was noted post injury. No difference between case and control horses was found for return to racing and racing 3 times, but control horses were significantly more likely to compete 5 races post treatment date than case horses. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Injury was associated with an individual's pre-injury maximum performance level and return to racing and completion of 3 races are not useful indicator of the outcome of horses with SDF tendonitis. The assessment of the outcome of horses with an SDF injury in a population of racehorses using the number of races post injury requires a minimum of 5 races post injury to be a useful indicator. Further, a re-injury proportion in a population of horses in training for 3 years post treatment.

Are bi-axial proximal sesamoid bone fractures in the British Thoroughbred racehorse a bone fatigue related fracture? A histological study.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether microfractures and alterations in the trabecular bone area are associated with catastrophic bi-axial proximal sesamoid bone fractures (PSBF). METHODS: Proximal sesamoid bones (PSB) from 10 racehorses with PSBF and from 10 control racehorses without musculoskeletal injury were examined using the bulk basic fuchsin method. Bone histomorphometric and microfracture analysis was performed, and cases and controls compared using two-sample t-test, paired t-test, and Mann-Whitney U test. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the microfracture density and the trabecular bone area between bones from case and control horses, and between fractured and non-fractured bones in case horses. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Microfracture density was low in the areas of the PSB examined. Microfracture density was not significantly different between groups, indicating that propagation of micro-cracks is an unlikely predisposing pathologic alteration in PSBF in British racehorses. There was no significant difference in the bone surface area between groups, which one would expect if modelling, adaptation and an increase in bone density were associated with PSBF fracture in the case horses. Therefore, PSBF in the British racehorse does not appear to be associated with microfractures of the trabecular bone of the PSB. The PSB fractures might represent an acute monotonic fracture; however, the aetiology of the fractures remains unknown with additional research required.

The impact of the mandatory rest period in Fédération Equestre Internationale endurance events.

BACKGROUND: Endurance riding competitions are increasingly popular, with a corresponding awareness of the frequency of Failure to Qualify (FTQ) due to lameness or metabolic problems. Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) rules require a minimum number of days between competitions, known as a mandatory rest period (MRP). OBJECTIVES: To analyse the impact on FTQ outcomes of MRPs which applied between January 2014 and December 2016, and model potential changes to MRPs to establish which rule change could lead to the largest further reduction in the number of FTQ outcomes. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study and predictive model using a subset of data collected by the FEI of every horse start worldwide in Concours de Raid d'Endurance Internationale (CEI) competitions between 2010 and 2017. METHODS: Descriptive statistics followed by predictive/retrospective modelling of potential scenarios. Scenarios involved extended MRP for all horses and/or for only the fastest ridden horses. RESULTS: There were clear direct benefits demonstrated from the introduction of MRPs. Among directly affected horses, current MRPs could have prevented 2.3% of FTQ outcomes. Further benefits could be gained by extending MRPs. The 'best-value' impact could be found in a 1-week extension for all horses plus a 1-week extension for the fastest ridden horses - which could result in a reduction of up to 11.5% of FTQ outcomes among directly affected horses. MAIN LIMITATIONS: The data set covers all FEI competitions but no National Federation events. The data set is geographically comprehensive but it does not include every competition started by every individual horse. Training data for each horse were not available. CONCLUSIONS: Mandatory rest periods for horses between endurance competitions have had the intended impact of reducing numbers of FTQ outcomes in CEI events. Further benefits could be gained by extending rest periods for all horses and/or for horses ridden at the highest average speeds.

Stabling causes a significant increase in the pH of the equine airway.

Regulation of pH homeostasis in the equine lung is poorly understood. Measurement of exhaled breath condensate (EBC) pH provided a simple, highly repeatable and noninvasive method for the longitudinal investigation of changes in airway pH in response to environmental changes. Stabling of horses was found to lead to a small (approximately 100-200 parts/billion) but significant (P < 0.001) increase in ambient ammonia concentration when compared to pasture. This increase in exposure to ambient ammonia concentration was associated with significant (P = 0.002) increases in EBC pH and exhaled ammonia (P = 0.013). Stable feed/bedding management type had no effect on EBC pH or exhaled ammonia concentration, while ambient ammonia concentration was influenced by stable management type.

The prevalence and anatomical distribution of equine gastric ulceration syndrome (EGUS) in 201 horses in Denmark.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The prevalence (up to 93% in Thoroughbred racehorses) and severity of equine gastric ulceration syndrome (EGUS) have been correlated with the type of training and associated management practices. However, there have been few reports to confirm these findings in nonracehorses in Europe. OBJECTIVES: To describe the prevalence, anatomical distribution, severity and number of gastric ulceration lesions in a population of Danish pleasure horses; and to investigate differences for groups based on age, breed type and workload. METHODS: A total of 201 horses not in active race-training, age 7 months-27 years, were evaluated, representing 23 different stables from all 5 regions of Denmark. These horses were considered to be healthy by the owner and not on veterinary treatment for EGUS. Endoscopically observed ulcer lesion scores were based on the number present (0-4) and severity (0-5). The presence or absence of ulcers in the glandular and/or nonglandular regions of the stomach was recorded and which site the most severe ulcers were found. RESULTS: The prevalence of EGUS severity score > or = 2 was 53%. The most severe lesions were commonly observed at the margo plicatus. Although older horses were not more likely to be affected by clinically significant EGUS they were more likely to have lesions in both the glandular and nonglandular regions. Differences in location of EGUS lesions were identified in different age groups, breed types and in horses exposed to different levels of work. CONCLUSION AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This study confirms that gastric ulceration can be prevalent in a group of apparently clinically normal horses, not in intensive work. Further investigation of reasons for differences in EGUS location between different populations may aid toward the development of novel preventive measures.

Risk factors associated with equine gastric ulceration syndrome (EGUS) in 201 horses in Denmark.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The prevalence (up to 93% in Thoroughbred racehorses) and severity of equine gastric ulceration syndrome (EGUS) has been associated with type of training and differing management practices. However, there have been few studies to confirm these findings in nonracehorses in Europe. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the prevalence of EGUS in a population of Danish horses, during winter when the horses had been housed and fed for at least 8 weeks and to analyse the influence of feed, work level and environment on the risk of EGUS of > or = grade 2 in severity. METHODS: A total of 201 horses, not in active race-training, were evaluated, representing 23 different stables from all 5 regions within Denmark. All horses were considered to be healthy and not on medical treatment for EGUS. Endoscopically observed ulcer lesion scores were based on the number present (0-4) and severity (0-5). Univariate and multivariable mixed effects logistic regression models were developed using EGUS score as the dependent variable. An ulceration severity score of > or = 2 was regarded as being clinically significant. Separate models were developed for horses with ulcers in either the glandular or nonglandular regions of the stomach graded > or = 2 (EGUS > or = 2) and for those horses that had nonglandular ulcers graded > or = 2 (NG > or = 2). RESULTS: In this population, 53% (107/201) of horses were graded as having EGUS > or = 2 with 95 (47%) horses having NG > or = 2. Three variables were significantly (P<0.05) associated with EGUS > or = 2: straw being the only forage available; exceeding 2 g/kg bwt of starch intake/day or >1 g/kg bwt/meal; and water not being available in the turn out paddock. Risk of NG > or = 2 significantly increased when straw was the only forage available, 1 g/kg bwt of starch/meal was exceeded, water was not available in the turnout paddock and the interval between forage feeding was >6 h. CONCLUSION AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This study has confirmed that components of the diet, readily modifiable, may have an important impact on the risk of EGUS in the nonracehorse. Differences in the multivariable models produced for all ulcers and nonglandular ulcers support differences in the aetiology of ulcers in different locations of the stomach.

Dynamic respiratory endoscopy in 67 Thoroughbred racehorses training under normal ridden exercise conditions.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: There are potential advantages to imaging the upper portion of the respiratory tract (URT) of horses during ridden exercise. With the advent of a wireless endoscope, this is now possible. However, there has been no detailed validation of the technique and findings have not been compared to ridden speed. OBJECTIVES: To assess the combined use of a Dynamic Respiratory Scope (DRS) and global positioning system (GPS) receiver for examining the URT of a group of Thoroughbred racehorses randomly selected from a single flat racehorse training establishment. METHODS: Horses were selected randomly from a population of Thoroughbred horses in training at the same training yard. Endoscopic images of the URT were recorded during a ridden exercise test on an 'all-weather-gallop' and were reviewed post testing. Speed was measured using a wrist mounted GPS receiver. RESULTS: A total of 67 (34%) of the 195 horses in training were examined. Endoscopic findings included: normal URT function (44 cases); dorsal displacement of the soft palate (DDSP) (13 cases); laryngeal asymmetry (4 cases); and axial deviation of the aryepiglottic folds (3 cases). Maximum speed obtained by individual horses ranged from 41.8-56.3 km/h. Ridden speed was variably affected by DDSP. CONCLUSIONS: The DRS provides a safe effective system for imaging the equine URT during ridden exercise at speed. The abnormalities of the URT identified were similar to those observed during treadmill endoscopy studies reported in the literature. The effect of URT abnormalities on ridden speed requires further investigation. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This technique can be used to diagnose common causes of URT associated with poor performance in horses during normal training. This has substantial implications for future clinical diagnosis and treatment of URT pathology.

Proportion of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug prescription in equine practice.

BACKGROUND: There is little knowledge of the prescription of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and whether their prescription varies between countries. OBJECTIVE: To describe prescription practices of NSAIDs in equids in the United Kingdom (UK), United States of America (USA) and Canada. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive observational study. METHODS: Free-text electronic medical records from 141,543 equids from 10 equine practices in the UK, 255,777 equids from 7 equine practices with 20 branches from the USA and 2 practices with 7 branches from Canada were evaluated. A validated text-mining technique was used to describe the proportion of equids prescribed NSAIDs at least once in these countries. The choice of NSAIDs in orthopaedic and colic cases was evaluated. RESULTS: The prescription of NSAIDs is more common in the USA (42.4%) and Canada (34.2%) than in the UK (28.6%). Phenylbutazone and flunixin meglumine were the drugs mostly prescribed in all countries. While flunixin meglumine was most prescribed with colic cases in all countries, a proportion received phenylbutazone despite this drug being licensed for use only with musculoskeletal disease. Phenylbutazone was the most commonly prescribed drug in cases with orthopaedic disease followed by flunixin meglumine in all countries. Only a small proportion of cases received meloxicam, ketoprofen or firocoxib. MAIN LIMITATIONS: The retrospective design might have resulted in an unknown number of incomplete records, particularly in the reporting of colic and orthopaedic disease. Although the data set is large, the relatively small number of practices recruited from each country may introduce bias. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical practice can differ between countries although the influence of individual practitioners and practice-specific policy on apparent intercountry differences requires further research. Despite several other NSAIDs being available and a substantial effort being made to evaluate their efficacy, the prescription of NSAIDs other than phenylbutazone and flunixin meglumine remains rather limited.

Overground endoscopic findings and respiratory sound analysis in horses with recurrent laryngeal neuropathy after unilateral laser ventriculocordectomy.

BACKGROUND: Unilateral ventriculocordectomy (VeC) is frequently performed, yet objective studies in horses with naturally occurring recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN) are few. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate respiratory noise and exercising overground endoscopy in horses with grade B and C laryngeal function, before and after unilateral laser VeC. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective study in clinically affected client-owned horses. METHODS: Exercising endoscopy was performed and concurrent respiratory noise was recorded. A left-sided laser VeC was performed under standing sedation. Owners were asked to present the horse for re-examination 6-8 weeks post-operatively when exercising endoscopy and sound recordings were repeated. Exercising endoscopic findings were recorded, including the degree of arytenoid stability. Quantitative measurement of left-to-right quotient angle ratio (LRQ) and rima glottidis area ratio (RGA) were performed pre- and post-operatively. Sound analysis was performed, and measurements of the energy change in F1, F2 and F3 formants between pre- and post-operative recordings were made and statistically analysed. RESULTS: Three grade B and seven grade C horses were included; 6/7grade C horses preoperatively had bilateral vocal fold collapse (VFC) and 5/7 had mild right-sided medial deviation of the ary-epiglottic fold (MDAF). Right VFC and MDAF was still present in these horses post-operatively; grade B horses had no other endoscopic dynamic abnormalities post-operatively. Sound analysis showed significant reduction in energy in formant F2 (P = 0.05) after surgery. MAIN LIMITATIONS: The study sample size was small and multiple dynamic abnormalities made sound analysis challenging. CONCLUSIONS: RLN-affected horses have reduction in sound levels in F2 after unilateral laser VeC. Continuing noise may be caused by other ongoing forms of dynamic obstruction in grade C horses. Unilateral VeC is useful for grade B horses based on endoscopic images. In grade C horses, bilateral VeC, right ary-epiglottic fold resection ± laryngoplasty might be a better option than unilateral VeC alone. The Summary is available in Portuguese - see Supporting Information.

Lower respiratory tract disease in Thoroughbred racehorses: analysis of endoscopic data from a UK training yard.

REASON FOR PERFORMING STUDY: There has been much research directed at potential causative agents and the epidemiology of lower respiratory tract disease (LRTD), but few reports of the clinical progression and outcome. OBJECTIVES: To define clinical features of LRTD in racehorses, including association with age and average duration of disease, through the analysis of endoscopic data. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of records from a single training yard of endoscopic examinations undertaken over a 2-year period was performed. Horses were subjected to regular endoscopic examination for a variety of reasons, and all horses placed on antibiotic therapy for lower respiratory tract disease were rescoped following treatment. Data analysed included a 0-8 tracheal mucus score based on visible endoscopic mucus and gross tracheal lavage turbidity, as well as age and treatment duration and type. RESULTS: A total of 522 endoscopic examinations undertaken on 123 horses and tracking 169 episodes of lower respiratory tract disease were recorded. Mean duration of disease episode was 15.5 days (median = 11 days, range = 4-61 days). Horses age 2 years were significantly more likely than those age > or=3 years to have at least one episode of respiratory disease (P<0.001). There was a direct association between initial tracheal mucus score and rescope score after treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Lower respiratory tract disease was more common in 2-year-olds than in older horses. Affected horses had endoscopic evidence of increased tracheal mucus accumulation for an average of 15.5 days per episode, a considerably shorter period than that suggested by previous studies. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Endoscopic examinations permit longitudinal tracking of lower respiratory tract disease in Thoroughbred racehorses. A prolonged duration of disease, sometimes extending for months, can be expected in a small proportion of cases, some of which appear to be refractory to treatment. There is a clear need for evidence-based analysis of treatment regimes to assist clinicians in decision making when managing disease in both individual and group situations.

Retrospective study of palmar/plantar annular ligament injury in 71 horses: 2001-2006.

REASON FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Constriction of the digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) and its contents by the palmar/plantar annular ligament (PAL) is well recognised. However, primary injury of the PAL has not been well documented. OBJECTIVES: To describe the clinical features of PAL injury, determine its prevalence with or without subcutaneous fibrosis and/or concurrent injury within the DFTS, and assess response to treatment. METHODS: Horses were selected for inclusion based upon clinical features consistent with PAL injury and the presence of a thickened PAL (> or =2 mm) verified ultrasonographically. A retrospective analysis of case records from 3 clinics was performed. Details of breed, age and use, and results of clinical and ultrasonographic assessments and response to treatment were recorded. Horses were treated conservatively or surgically by desmotomy of the PAL, with or without tenoscopic evaluation of the DFTS. A telephone questionnaire was performed to assess response to treatment. RESULTS: Seventy-one horses were included in the study and middle aged or older general purpose riding horses predominated. PAL desmopathy occurred more frequently in hind- than in forelimbs. The method of treatment, thickness of the PAL or presence of subcutaneous fibrosis did not significantly affect prognosis; however, <50% of horses were able to return to athletic function. There was a trend for horses with PAL desmopathy alone to have the best outcome. Bilateral thickening of the PAL or concurrent fore- and hindlimb injuries had a negative effect on prognosis, as did the simultaneous presence of subcutaneous fibrosis and lesions within the DFTS. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: PAL injury is characterised by a convex contour of the palmar/plantar aspect of the fetlock, associated with thickening of the ligament with or without subcutaneous fibrosis. Bilateral PAL thickening is common in older horses, ponies and cobs; however, bilateral PAL enlargement is often present with only unilateral lameness. Treatment methods used in this study did not appear to influence outcome significantly.

Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) endurance events: Riding speeds as a risk factor for failure to qualify outcomes (2012-2015).

This study examined the association between riding speed and elimination in Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) endurance events. A total of 35,061 horse starts from 1st July 2012 to 31st December 2015 were included in a multivariable logistic regression model containing 25 different risk factors. Riding speeds in individual stages ('loops') were included as individual risk factors in studying the progress of horses through loops 1-3 of each endurance ride. The possibility of real-time, 'mid-ride' predictive modelling was explored by modelling both riding speeds and sudden changes in speed between loops as potential risk factors. Faster riding speeds, especially during loops 1 and 2, were associated with deleterious outcomes. Furthermore, sudden drops in riding speed during loop 3 were associated with an increased likelihood of elimination.

Fédération Equestre Internationale endurance events: Risk factors for failure to qualify outcomes at the level of the horse, ride and rider (2010-2015).

An epidemiological study of elite endurance riding was conducted using data from every Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) endurance event from 2010 to 2015, comprising 82,917 starts. The aim of the study was to identify risk factors associated with failure to qualify outcomes for horses during FEI endurance rides. The FEI endurance rules state that, during a ride, horses must be assessed by veterinarians several times, giving veterinarians the opportunity to prevent those horses exhibiting signs of lameness or metabolic problems from continuing further. Multivariable logistic regression models were constructed to identify horse, ride and rider level risk factors associated with failure to qualify. Risk factors particularly associated with increased likelihood of failure to qualify due to lameness included age of horse≥9 years, male horse, male rider, field size≥61 horses and if the ride was held in region group II (Northern and Eastern Europe). Factors associated with increased likelihood of failure to qualify due to metabolic problems included whether the ride was held in region group VII (North Africa and the Middle East), ride distance≥100km and male rider. Some risk factors, such as field size, may be modifiable at the ride level. Other risk factors such as horse age or sex are unmodifiable, but awareness of the risk contributed by these factors can provide veterinarians with additional information while treating horses during endurance rides.

How does exercise intensity and type affect equine distal tarsal subchondral bone thickness?

Adaptation of osteochondral tissues is based on the strains experienced during exercise at each location within the joint. Different exercise intensities and types may induce particular site-specific strains, influencing osteochondral adaptation and potentially predisposing to injury. Our hypotheses were that patterns of equine distal tarsal subchondral bone (SCB) thickness relate to the type and intensity of exercise, and that high-intensity exercise leads to site-specific increases in thickness. SCB thickness was measured at defined dorsal and plantar locations on magnetic resonance images of cadaver tarsi collected from horses with a history of low [general purpose (n=20) and horse walker (n=6)] or high [elite competition (n=12), race training (n=15), and treadmill training (n=4)] exercise intensity. SCB thickness was compared between sites within each exercise group and between exercise groups. SCB thickness in elite competition and race training, but not treadmill training, was greater than low-intensity exercise. For general purpose horses, lateral SCB thickness was greater than medial throughout. Horse walker exercise led to relatively thicker lateral and medial SCB compared with the midline. Elite competition was associated with increased SCB thickness of the proximal small tarsal bones medially and the distal bones laterally. For race training and treadmill training, there were minimal differences between sites overall, although the lateral aspect was greater than medial, and medial greater than midline at a few sites for race training. In conclusion, different types of high-intensity exercise were associated with different patterns of SCB thickness across the joints from medial to lateral and proximal to distal, indicating that both exercise intensity and type of exercise affect the SCB response at any particular site within the equine distal tarsal joints.

Descriptive analysis of retirement of Thoroughbred racehorses due to tendon injuries at the Hong Kong Jockey Club (1992-2004).

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: This study was part of a programme to optimise the longevity and maximise the health and welfare of the Thoroughbred racehorses in Hong Kong. Injuries to the superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendon are the most common veterinary reason for premature retirement in this population. OBJECTIVE: To describe the frequency and pattern of retirements associated with SDF tendon injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses and to compare the characteristics of these horses with those that retired for other reasons. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of retirement records documented in the Hong Kong Jockey Club clinical database between 1992 and 2004 was conducted. As this is complete census data, no statistical inference to the population is necessary. RESULTS: The mean annual cumulative incidence of retirements due to tendon injury was 3.2% accounting for 14% of all retirements. The risk of tendon injury increased over the 12 year period from 23-4.2%. The racing career, number of starts and earnings of horses retired with tendon injuries were reduced by 25.6, 41.2 and 53.3%, respectively. Thirteen percent of these horses never raced in Hong Kong. A greater proportion of 3- and 4-year-olds and entire males were retired because of tendon injuries. Ninety-seven percent of injuries affected the forelimb, the right more frequently than the left. Only 19.7% of retired horses that had received ultrasound examination for SDF tendon injury retired for this reason. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides population based data on the frequency, career and economic losses associated with tendon injury induced retirement. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This descriptive study has provided a useful resource for further case-control studies to investigate risk factors for retirement from racing due to tendon injury. This is the first step toward the development of management tools to reduce the incidence of tendon injury related retirement in Hong Kong.

Risk factors for Thoroughbred racehorse fatality in jump starts in Victoria, Australia (1989-2004).

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: The risk of fatality is greater in jump than in flat racing in Victoria, Australia. This is the first study to identify risk factors specific to jump starts in Victoria. OBJECTIVE: To identify risk factors for fatality of Thoroughbred racehorses in jump starts on all racecourses in Victoria, Australia between 1989 and 2004. METHODS: Fatalities comprised all horses that died during or immediately after a jump (hurdle or steeplechase) race or official jump trial and all horses that were subjected to euthanasia within 24 h of an event in which an injury was sustained. The retrospective study involved 191 case starts and 2324 control starts. Univariable and multivariable backward stepwise logistic regression was used to identify risk factors for fatality at any one start. A multiple level model was used with racecourse included as a random effect. RESULTS: In the final multivariable model, the duration of the racing career of the horse, the number of flat, hurdle and steeple starts accumulated in the 60 days prior to the case or control start, the number of flat and jump starts accumulated over the racing career, if the horse had had a start between 1 and 14 days prior to the case or control start, the type of jump race (hurdle or steeple), the calendar year of the start and the location of the racecourse were associated with fatality. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the need to investigate further the differences between hurdle and steeplechase events and the adverse effect of prolonged prior flat racing careers on the risk of fatality in jump starts. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: This is the first study to examine risk factors for fatality in jump starts in Victoria. The results should shape the development of interventions to reduce the risk in jump starts in the future.