Selective activation of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor achieved by allosteric potentiation.

The forebrain cholinergic system promotes higher brain function in part by signaling through the M(1) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR). During Alzheimer's disease (AD), these cholinergic neurons degenerate, therefore selectively activating M(1) receptors could improve cognitive function in these patients while avoiding unwanted peripheral responses associated with non-selective muscarinic agonists. We describe here benzyl quinolone carboxylic acid (BQCA), a highly selective allosteric potentiator of the M(1) mAChR. BQCA reduces the concentration of ACh required to activate M(1) up to 129-fold with an inflection point value of 845 nM. No potentiation, agonism, or antagonism activity on other mAChRs is observed up to 100 microM. Furthermore studies in M(1)(-/-) mice demonstrates that BQCA requires M(1) to promote inositol phosphate turnover in primary neurons and to increase c-fos and arc RNA expression and ERK phosphorylation in the brain. Radioligand-binding assays, molecular modeling, and site-directed mutagenesis experiments indicate that BQCA acts at an allosteric site involving residues Y179 and W400. BQCA reverses scopolamine-induced memory deficits in contextual fear conditioning, increases blood flow to the cerebral cortex, and increases wakefulness while reducing delta sleep. In contrast to M(1) allosteric agonists, which do not improve memory in scopolamine-challenged mice in contextual fear conditioning, BQCA induces beta-arrestin recruitment to M(1), suggesting a role for this signal transduction mechanism in the cholinergic modulation of memory. In summary, BQCA exploits an allosteric potentiation mechanism to provide selectivity for the M(1) receptor and represents a promising therapeutic strategy for cognitive disorders.

The M1 muscarinic receptor allosteric agonists AC-42 and 1-[1'-(2-methylbenzyl)-1,4'-bipiperidin-4-yl]-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one bind to a unique site distinct from the acetylcholine orthosteric site.

Activation of M1 muscarinic receptors occurs through orthosteric and allosteric binding sites. To identify critical residues, site-directed mutagenesis and chimeric receptors were evaluated in functional calcium mobilization assays to compare orthosteric agonists, acetylcholine and xanomeline, M1 allosteric agonists AC-42 (4-n-butyl-1-[4-(2-methylphenyl)-4-oxo-1-butyl]-piperidine hydrogen chloride), TBPB (1-[1'-(2-methylbenzyl)-1,4'-bipiperidin-4-yl]-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one), and the clozapine metabolite N-desmethylclozapine. A minimal epitope has been defined for AC-42 that comprises the first 45 amino acids, the third extracellular loop, and seventh transmembrane domain (Mol Pharmacol 61:1297-1302, 2002). Using chimeric M1 and M3 receptor constructs, the AC-42 minimal epitope has been extended to also include transmembrane II. Phe77 was identified as a critical residue for maintenance of AC-42 and TBPB agonist activity. In contrast, the functional activity of N-desmethylclozapine did not require Phe77. To further map the binding site of AC-42, TBPB, and N-desmethylclozapine, point mutations previously reported to affect activities of M1 orthosteric agonists and antagonists were studied. Docking into an M1 receptor homology model revealed that AC-42 and TBPB share a similar binding pocket adjacent to the orthosteric binding site at the opposite face of Trp101. In contrast, the activity of N-desmethylclozapine was generally unaffected by the point mutations studied, and the docking indicated that N-desmethylclozapine bound to a site distinct from AC-42 and TBPB overlapping with the orthosteric site. These results suggest that structurally diverse allosteric agonists AC-42, TBPB, and N-desmethylclozapine may interact with different subsets of residues, supporting the hypothesis that M1 receptor activation can occur through at least three different binding domains.

The behavioral and neurochemical effects of a novel D-amino acid oxidase inhibitor compound 8 [4H-thieno [3,2-b]pyrrole-5-carboxylic acid] and D-serine.

Multiple studies indicate that N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor hypofunction underlies some of the deficits associated with schizophrenia. One approach for improving NMDA receptor function is to enhance occupancy of the glycine modulatory site on the NMDA receptor by increasing the availability of the endogenous coagonists D-serine. Here, we characterized a novel D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) inhibitor, compound 8 [4H-thieno [3,2-b]pyrrole-5-carboxylic acid] and compared it with D-serine. Compound 8 is a moderately potent inhibitor of human (IC(50), 145 nM) and rat (IC(50), 114 nM) DAAO in vitro. In rats, compound 8 (200 mg/kg) decreased kidney DAAO activity by approximately 96% and brain DAAO activity by approximately 80%. This marked decrease in DAAO activity resulted in a significant (p < 0.001) elevation in both plasma (220% of control) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF; 175% of control) D-serine concentration. However, compound 8 failed to significantly influence amphetamine-induced psychomotor activity, nucleus accumbens dopamine release, or an MK-801 (dizocilpine maleate)-induced deficit in novel object recognition in rats. In contrast, high doses of D-serine attenuated both amphetamine-induced psychomotor activity and dopamine release and also improved performance in novel object recognition. Behaviorally efficacious doses of D-serine (1280 mg/kg) increased CSF levels of D-serine 40-fold above that achieved by the maximal dose of compound 8. These findings demonstrate that pharmacological inhibition of DAAO significantly increases D-serine concentration in the periphery and central nervous system. However, acute inhibition of DAAO appears not to be sufficient to increase D-serine to concentrations required to produce antipsychotic and cognitive enhancing effects similar to those observed after administration of high doses of exogenous D-serine.

The discovery of fused pyrrole carboxylic acids as novel, potent D-amino acid oxidase (DAO) inhibitors.

The 'NMDA hypofunction hypothesis of schizophrenia' can be tested in a number of ways. DAO is the enzyme primarily responsible for the metabolism of d-serine, a co-agonist for the NMDA receptor. We identified novel DAO inhibitors, in particular, acid 1, which demonstrated moderate potency for DAO in vitro and ex vivo, and raised plasma d-serine levels after dosing ip to rats. In parallel, analogues were prepared to survey the SARs of 1.

Iterative Focused Screening with Biological Fingerprints Identifies Selective Asc-1 Inhibitors Distinct from Traditional High Throughput Screening.

N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) mediate glutamatergic signaling that is critical to cognitive processes in the central nervous system, and NMDAR hypofunction is thought to contribute to cognitive impairment observed in both schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease. One approach to enhance the function of NMDAR is to increase the concentration of an NMDAR coagonist, such as glycine or d-serine, in the synaptic cleft. Inhibition of alanine-serine-cysteine transporter-1 (Asc-1), the primary transporter of d-serine, is attractive because the transporter is localized to neurons in brain regions critical to cognitive function, including the hippocampus and cortical layers III and IV, and is colocalized with d-serine and NMDARs. To identify novel Asc-1 inhibitors, two different screening approaches were performed with whole-cell amino acid uptake in heterologous cells stably expressing human Asc-1: (1) a high-throughput screen (HTS) of 3 M compounds measuring 35S l-cysteine uptake into cells attached to scintillation proximity assay beads in a 1536 well format and (2) an iterative focused screen (IFS) of a 45 000 compound diversity set using a 3H d-serine uptake assay with a liquid scintillation plate reader in a 384 well format. Critically important for both screening approaches was the implementation of counter screens to remove nonspecific inhibitors of radioactive amino acid uptake. Furthermore, a 15 000 compound expansion step incorporating both on- and off-target data into chemical and biological fingerprint-based models for selection of additional hits enabled the identification of novel Asc-1-selective chemical matter from the IFS that was not identified in the full-collection HTS.

The effects of deleting the mouse neurotensin receptor NTR1 on central and peripheral responses to neurotensin.

Mice deficient in the neurotensin (NT)-1 receptor (NTR1) were developed to characterize the NT receptor subtypes that mediate various in vivo responses to NT. F2 generation (C57BL6/Sv129J) NTR1 knockout (-/-) mice were viable, and showed normal growth and overt behavior. The -/- mice lacked detectable NTR1 radioligand binding in brain, whereas NTR2 receptor binding density appeared normal compared with wild-type (+/+) mice. The gene deletion also resulted in the loss of NTR1 expression as determined by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and in situ hybridization. Intracerebroventricular injection of NT (1 microg) to +/+ mice caused a robust hypothermic response (5-6 degrees C) and a significant increase in hot-plate latency. These effects were absent in the -/- mice. Similar results were obtained with i.p. injections of the brain-penetrant NT analog NMe-Arg-Lys-Pro-Trp-Tle-Leu (NT-2, 1 mg/kg i.p.). NT-2 administration also impaired rotarod performance in wild-type mice, but had no effect on motor coordination in knockout mice. In vitro, NT and NT-2 at 30 nM caused predominantly contraction and relaxation in isolated distal colon and proximal ileum, respectively, from +/+ mice, but no responses were observed with tissues from -/- mice. A similar loss of the contractile effects of NT was observed in the isolated stomach fundus from the knockout mice. In vivo, NT-2 administration reduced colonic propulsion substantially in wild-type mice. In contrast, NT-2 had no effect in NTR1 null mice, whereas the hypomotility effect of clonidine was intact. These data indicate that NTR1 mediates several of the central and peripheral effects of NT.

N-desmethylclozapine, an allosteric agonist at muscarinic 1 receptor, potentiates N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activity.

The molecular and neuronal substrates conferring on clozapine its unique and superior efficacy in the treatment of schizophrenia remain elusive. The interaction of clozapine with many G protein-coupled receptors is well documented but less is known about its biologically active metabolite, N-desmethylclozapine. Recent clinical and preclinical evidences of the antipsychotic activity of the muscarinic agonist xanomeline prompted us to investigate the effects of N-desmethylclozapine on cloned human M1-M5 muscarinic receptors. N-desmethylclozapine preferentially bound to M1 muscarinic receptors with an IC50 of 55 nM and was a more potent partial agonist (EC50, 115 nM and 50% of acetylcholine response) at this receptor than clozapine. Furthermore, pharmacological and site-directed mutagenesis studies suggested that N-desmethylclozapine preferentially activated M1 receptors by interacting with a site that does not fully overlap with the acetylcholine orthosteric site. As hypofunction of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor-driven neuronal ensembles has been implicated in psychotic disorders, the neuronal activity of N-desmethylclozapine was electrophysiologically investigated in hippocampal rat brain slices. N-desmethylclozapine was shown to dose-dependently potentiate NMDA receptor currents in CA1 pyramidal cells by 53% at 100 nM, an effect largely mediated by activation of muscarinic receptors. Altogether, our observations provide direct evidence that the brain penetrant metabolite N-desmethylclozapine is a potent, allosteric agonist at human M1 receptors and is able to potentiate hippocampal NMDA receptor currents through M1 receptor activation. These observations raise the possibility that N-desmethylclozapine contributes to clozapine's clinical activity in schizophrenics through modulation of both muscarinic and glutamatergic neurotransmission.