Dynamic Protein Adsorption onto Dendritic Polyglycerol Sulfate Self-Assembled Monolayers.

Biomaterial surfaces that are in contact with blood are often prone to unspecific protein adsorption and the activation of the blood clotting cascade. Hence, such materials usually must be functionalized with low-fouling or anticoagulant polymer coatings to increase their performance and durability with respect to various applications, for example as implants or in biomedical devices. Many coatings are based on anionic polymers, such as heparin, and are known to have pronounced anticoagulant effects. To assess the ability of a surface to prevent biofouling and to get further insight into its underlying mechanism, studies of the protein adsorption on self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) are often used as a predictive tool. In this article, we synthesized thioctic acid-functionalized dendritic polyglycerol sulfate (dPGS), which is a well-known synthetic heparin mimetic, and immobilized it onto gold model surfaces. The anionic dPGS SAMs were characterized via contact angle measurements and ellipsometry and compared to their neutral dendritic polyglycerol (dPG) counterparts with respect to their single protein adsorption of the two most abundant blood proteins albumin (Alb) and fibrinogen (Fib). In addition, we used QCM-D and ToF-SIMS as complementary techniques to investigate the dynamic, mixed, and sequential adsorption of Alb and Fib. Our results clearly demonstrate an incomplete Vroman effect and indicate the rearrangement of the adsorbed protein layers, which is presumably drive by ionic interactions between the two proteins and the anionic dPGS surface.

Multivalent anchoring and cross-linking of mussel-inspired antifouling surface coatings.

In this work, we combine nature's amazing bioadhesive catechol with the excellent bioinert synthetic macromolecule hyperbranched polyglycerol (hPG) to prepare antifouling surfaces. hPG can be functionalized by different amounts of catechol groups for multivalent anchoring and cross-linking because of its highly branched architecture. The catecholic hPGs can be immobilized on various surfaces including metal oxides, noble metals, ceramics, and polymers via simple incubation procedures. The effect of the catechol amount on the immobilization, surface morphology, stability, and antifouling performance of the coatings was studied. Both anchoring and cross-linking interactions provided by catechols can enhance the stability of the coatings. When the catechol groups on the hPG are underrepresented, the tethering of the coating is not effective; while an overrepresentation of catechol groups leads to protein adsorption and cell adhesion. Thus, only a well-balanced amount of catechols as optimized and described in this work can supply the coatings with both good stability and antifouling ability.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of radio and dye labeled amino functionalized dendritic polyglycerol sulfates as multivalent anti-inflammatory compounds.

Herein we describe a platform technology for the synthesis and characterization of partially aminated, (35)S-labeled, dendritic polyglycerol sulfate (dPG(35)S amine) and fluorescent dPGS indocarbocyanine (ICC) dye conjugates. These polymer conjugates, based on a biocompatible dendritic polyglycerol scaffold, exhibit a high affinity to inflamed tissue in vivo and represent promising candidates for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. By utilizing a one-step sequential copolymerization approach, dendritic polyglycerol (Mn ≈ 4.5 kDa) containing 9.4% N-phthalimide protected amine functionalities was prepared on a large scale. Sulfation and simultaneous radio labeling with (35)SO3 pyridine complex, followed by cleavage of the N-phthalimide protecting groups, yielded dPG(35)S amine as a beta emitting, inflammation specific probe with free amino functionalities for conjugation. Furthermore, efficient labeling procedures with ICC via iminothiolane modification and subsequent "Michael" addition of the maleimide functionalized ICC dye, as well as by amide formation via NHS derivatized ICC on a dPGS amine scaffold, are described. The dPGS-ICC conjugates were investigated with respect to their photophysical properties, and both the radiolabeled and fluorescent compounds were comparatively visualized in histological tissue sections (radio detection and fluorescence microscopy) of animals treated with dPGS. Furthermore, cellular uptake of dPGS-ICC was found in endothelial cord blood (HUVEC) and the epithelial lung cells (A549). The presented synthetic routes allow a reproducible, controlled synthesis of dPGS amine on kilogram scale applying a one-pot batch reaction process. dPGS amine can be used for analysis via radioactivity or fluorescence, thereby creating a new platform for inflammation specific, multimodal imaging purposes using other attachable probes or contrast agents.

A microgel construction kit for bioorthogonal encapsulation and pH-controlled release of living cells.

pH-Cleavable cell-laden microgels with excellent long-term viabilities were fabricated by combining bioorthogonal strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) and droplet-based microfluidics. Poly(ethylene glycol)dicyclooctyne and dendritic poly(glycerol azide) served as bioinert hydrogel precursors. Azide conjugation was performed using different substituted acid-labile benzacetal linkers that allowed precise control of the microgel degradation kinetics in the interesting pH range between 4.5 and 7.4. By this means, a pH-controlled release of the encapsulated cells was achieved upon demand with no effect on cell viability and spreading. As a result, the microgel particles can be used for temporary cell encapsulation, allowing the cells to be studied and manipulated during the encapsulation and then be isolated and harvested by decomposition of the microgel scaffolds.

Biodegradable Core⁻Multishell Nanocarriers: Influence of Inner Shell Structure on the Encapsulation Behavior of Dexamethasone and Tacrolimus.

We here present the synthesis and characterization of a set of biodegradable core⁻multishell (CMS) nanocarriers. The CMS nanocarrier structure consists of hyperbranched polyglycerol (hPG) as core material, a hydrophobic (12, 15, 18, 19, and 36 C-atoms) inner and a polyethylene glycol monomethyl ether (mPEG) outer shell that were conjugated by ester bonds only to reduce the toxicity of metabolites. The loading capacities (LC) of the drugs, dexamethasone and tacrolimus, and the aggregate formation, phase transitions, and degradation kinetics were determined. The intermediate inner shell length (C15) system had the best overall performance with good LCs for both drugs as well as a promising degradation and release kinetics, which are of interest for dermal delivery.

Synthesis of pH-Cleavable dPG-Amines for Gene Delivery Application.

The development of effective nonviral vectors for gene therapy is still a challenge in research, due to the high toxicity of many existing polycationic nanocarriers. In this paper, the development of two pH-cleavable polyglycerol-amine-based nanocarriers is described. The benz-acetal bond represents the pH-sensitive cleavage site between dendritic polyglycerol (dPG) and glycerol-based 1,2-diamines that can complex genetic material. Due to the acid lability of the acetal moiety, the cleavable dPG-amines are less toxic in vitro. Cell-mediated degradation results in non-toxic dPG with low amine functionalization and low molecular weight cleavage products (cp). The genetic material is released because of the loss of multivalent amine groups. Interestingly, the release kinetics at the endosomal pH could be controlled by simple chemical modification of the acetals. In vitro experiments demonstrate the ability of the cleavable dPG-amine to transfect HeLa cells with GFP-DNA, which resulted in cell-compatible cleavage products.

Linear polysialoside outperforms dendritic analogs for inhibition of influenza virus infection in vitro and in vivo.

Inhibition of influenza A virus infection by multivalent sialic acid inhibitors preventing viral hemagglutinin binding to host cells of the respiratory tract is a promising strategy. However, optimal geometry and optimal ligand presentation on multivalent scaffolds for efficient inhibition both in vitro and in vivo application are still unclear. Here, by comparing linear and dendritic polyglycerol sialosides (LPGSA and dPGSA) we identified architectural requirements and optimal ligand densities for an efficient multivalent inhibitor of influenza virus A/X31/1 (H3N2). Due to its large volume, the LPGSA at optimal ligand density sterically shielded the virus significantly better than the dendritic analog. A statistical mechanics model rationalizes the relevance of ligand density, morphology, and the size of multivalent scaffolds for the potential to inhibit virus-cell binding. Optimized LPGSA inhibited virus infection at IC50 in the low nanomolar nanoparticle concentration range and also showed potent antiviral activity against two avian influenza strains A/Mallard/439/2004 (H3N2) and A/turkey/Italy/472/1999 (H7N1) post infection. In vivo application of inhibitors clearly confirmed the higher inhibition potential of linear multivalent scaffolds to prevent infection. The optimized LPGSA did not show any acute toxicity, and was much more potent than the neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir carboxylate in vivo. Combined application of the LPGSA and oseltamivir carboxylate revealed a synergistic inhibitory effect and successfully prevented influenza virus infection in mice.

Tailored dendritic core-multishell nanocarriers for efficient dermal drug delivery: A systematic top-down approach from synthesis to preclinical testing.

Drug loaded dendritic core-multishell (CMS) nanocarriers are of especial interest for the treatment of skin diseases, owing to their striking dermal delivery efficiencies following topical applications. CMS nanocarriers are composed of a polyglycerol core, connected by amide-bonds to an inner alkyl shell and an outer methoxy poly(ethylene glycol) shell. Since topically applied nanocarriers are subjected to biodegradation, the application of conventional amide-based CMS nanocarriers (10-A-18-350) has been limited by the potential production of toxic polyglycerol amines. To circumvent this issue, three tailored ester-based CMS nanocarriers (10-E-12-350, 10-E-15-350, 10-E-18-350) of varying inner alkyl chain length were synthesized and comprehensively characterized in terms of particle size, drug loading, biodegradation and dermal drug delivery efficiency. Dexamethasone (DXM), a potent drug widely used for the treatment of inflammatory skin diseases, was chosen as a therapeutically relevant test compound for the present study. Ester- and amide-based CMS nanocarriers delivered DXM more efficiently into human skin than a commercially available DXM cream. Subsequent in vitro and in vivo toxicity studies identified CMS (10-E-15-350) as the most biocompatible carrier system. The anti-inflammatory potency of DXM-loaded CMS (10-E-15-350) nanocarriers was assessed in TNFα supplemented skin models, where a significant reduction of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-8 was seen, with markedly greater efficacy than commercial DXM cream. In summary, we report the rational design and characterization of tailored, biodegradable, ester-based CMS nanocarriers, and their subsequent stepwise screening for biocompatibility, dermal delivery efficiency and therapeutic efficacy in a top-down approach yielding the best carrier system for topical applications.

The effect of polyglycerol sulfate branching on inflammatory processes.

In this study, the extent to which the scaffold architecture of polyglycerol sulfates affects inflammatory processes and hemocompatibility is investigated. Competitive L-selectin binding assays, cellular uptake studies, and blood compatibility readouts are done to evaluate distinct biological properties. Fully glycerol based hyperbranched polyglycerol architectures are obtained by either homopolymerization of glycidol (60% branching) or a new copolymerization strategy of glycidol with ethoxyethyl glycidyl ether. Two polyglycerols with 24 and 42% degree of branching (DB) are synthesized by using different monomer feed ratios. A perfectly branched polyglycerol dendrimer is synthesized according to an iterative two-step protocol based on allylation of the alcohol and subsequent catalytic dihydroxylation. All the polyglycerol sulfates are synthesized with a comparable molecular weight and degree of sulfation. The DB make the different polymer conjugates perform different ways. The optimal DB is 60% in all biological assays.

Dendritic polyglycerol-poly(ethylene glycol)-based polymer networks for biosensing application.

This work describes the formation of a new dendritic polyglycerol-poly(ethylene glycol)-based 3D polymer network as a matrix for immobilization of the redox enzyme periplasmatic aldehyde oxidoreductase to create an electrochemical biosensor. The novel network is built directly on the gold surface, where it simultaneously stabilizes the enzyme for up to 4 days. The prepared biosensors can be used for amperometric detection of benzaldehyde in the range of 0.8-400 µM.

Multivalent anchored and crosslinked hyperbranched polyglycerol monolayers as antifouling coating for titanium oxide surfaces.

A set of new catecholic monolayer coatings was developed to improve the antifouling performance of TiO2 surfaces. To solve the problem of the weak charge-transfer interaction between a single catechol anchor and TiO2, multiple catechol groups were combined with hyperbranched polyglycerol (hPG) which is a distinct dendritic scaffold that exposes its multivalent anchor groups on the surface. Thus, multivalent catecholic hPGs can be easily prepared for surface modification. The immobilization of the compounds was monitored by quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring. Surface properties of the coatings were analyzed by water contact angle, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy. The antifouling ability and stability were investigated by protein adsorption and cell adhesion. By increasing the number of catechol groups on the hPG scaffold, the stability and surface coverage could be significantly enhanced. Moreover, the inner-layer crosslinking of the coatings by grafting and initiating vinyl groups clearly improved their long-term stability. As a result, hPG with a catecholic functional degree of 10% (hPG-Cat10) and hPG with both catecholic and vinylic functional degree of 5% (hPG-Cat5-V5) were identified as the best catecholic hPGs to prepare bioinert and stable monolayer coatings on TiO2.

Surfactant free preparation of biodegradable dendritic polyglycerol nanogels by inverse nanoprecipitation for encapsulation and release of pharmaceutical biomacromolecules.

In this paper we report a novel approach to generate biodegradable polyglycerol nanogels on different length scales. We developed a mild, surfactant free inverse nanoprecipitation process to template hydrophilic polyglycerol nanoparticles. In situ crosslinking of the precipitated nanoparticles by bioorthogonal copper catalyzed click chemistry allows us to obtain size defined polyglycerol nanogels (100-1000nm). Biodegradability was achieved by the introduction of benzacetal bonds into the net points of the nanogel. Interestingly, the polyglycerol nanogels quickly degraded into low molecular weight fragments at acidic pH values, which are present in inflamed and tumor tissues as well as intracellular organelles, and they remained stable at physiological pH values for a long time. This mild approach to biodegradable polyglycerol nanogels allows us to encapsulate labile biomacromolecules such as proteins, including the therapeutic relevant enzyme asparaginase, into the protein resistant polyglycerol network. Enzymes were encapsulated with an efficacy of 100% and after drug release, full enzyme activity and structural integrity were retained. This new inverse nanoprecipitation procedure allows the efficient encapsulation and release of various biomacromolecules including proteins and could find many applications in polymer therapeutics and nanomedicine.

Hyperbranched polyglycerols on the nanometer and micrometer scale.

We report the preparation of polyglycerol particles on different length scales by extending the size of hyperbranched polyglycerols (3 nm) to nanogels (32 nm) and microgels (140 and 220 µm). We use miniemulsion templating for the preparation of nanogels and microfluidic templating for the preparation of microgels, which we obtain through a free-radical polymerization of hyperbranched polyglycerol decaacrylate and polyethylene glycol-diacrylate. The use of mild polymerization conditions allows yeast cells to be encapsulated into the resultant microgels with cell viabilities of approximately 30%.