Clinical features and diagnostic tools in idiopathic inflammatory myopathies.

Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIMs) are rare autoimmune disorders affecting primarily muscles, but other organs can be involved. This review describes the clinical features, diagnosis and treatment for IIMs, namely polymyositis (PM), dermatomyositis (DM), sporadic inclusion body myositis (sIBM), immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy (IMNM), and myositis associated with antisynthetase syndrome (ASS). The diagnostic approach has been updated recently based on the discovery of circulating autoantibodies, which has enhanced the management of patients. Currently, validated classification criteria for IIMs allow clinical studies with well-defined sets of patients but diagnostic criteria to guide the care of individual patients in routine clinical practice are still missing. This review analyzes the clinical manifestations and laboratory findings of IIMs, discusses the efficiency of modern and standard methods employed in their workup, and delineates optimal practice for clinical care. Α multidisciplinary diagnostic approach that combines clinical, neurologic and rheumatologic examination, evaluation of electrophysiologic and morphologic muscle characteristics, and assessment of autoantibody immunoassays has been determined to be the preferred approach for effective management of patients with suspected IIMs.

The Immunogenetics of Vasculitis.

Vasculitides are a cluster of diseases defined by an immune attack targeting vessels of different sizes. While most types of vasculitis have an undetermined cause, progress has been achieved in the recent decade in elucidating the mechanisms that participate in the inflammatory damage of the blood vessel wall. Several studies have emphasized that genetic susceptibility is an important aspect of the pathogenesis of vasculitides. The most prominent genetic risk loci for vasculitides reside within the major histocompatibility complex region. This indicates that the immune system is a major contributor to the pathogenesis of this group of diseases. In this chapter, we provide an updated overview of the etiology and pathogenesis of these entities with an emphasis on the major insights gained from recent genetic studies in the highly studied types of vasculitides.

Incidence of spondyloarthritis subtypes: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVES: Several epidemiologic studies of spondylarthritis (SpA) and its subtypes have been reported during the last decades. The majority of these studies provided prevalence estimates and showed a considerable variation in the reported frequency of SpA subtypes. Most systematic reviews published in this field aimed to summarise the results of prevalence studies, however, incidence studies are important for an accurate picture of a disease occurrence in a defined population. We conducted a systematic review regarding the incidence of SpA subtypes on studies published during the last 25 years, to compare their methodology and summarise their results. METHODS: A systematic literature search of PubMed was performed to identify all published studies on the incidence of SpA subtypes between 1/1/1995 and 31/12/2019. Studies were considered eligible if the incidence of one or more SpA subtypes was measured in the general population, and met concrete inclusion criteria. Incidence rates (IR) were summarised using a random effect model. RESULTS: A total of 24 publications fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Most of them included results for two or more SpA subtypes. Sixteen studies presented the incidence of psoriatic arthritis, which gave an overall IR estimate of 9.7 cases per 100.000 person-years. Thirteen studies presented the incidence of ankylosing spondylitis with an overall IR estimate of 4.8, and eight studies presented reactive arthritis incidence with an overall IR estimate of 3.4. A small number of studies referred to the incidence of enteropathic arthritis or undifferentiated spondyloarthritis. CONCLUSIONS: Incidence studies of SpAs differ considerably in their methods, and result in a wide variation of the IRs for all SpA subtypes. Methodological differences may only partly explain the differences in disease occurrence observed among studies. More studies from different populations based on specific classification criteria are needed for a more accurate picture of SpA epidemiology.

COVID-19 in patients with gout on colchicine.

Current data demonstrated that severe cases of coronavirus-disease-19 (COVID-19) require treatment with antiviral therapy, dexamethasone, supportive care, as well as some anti-rheumatic drugs, among them, cytokine inhibitors and colchicine. Colchicine is an anti-inflammatory drug that is being used in rheumatology for many years to treat mostly gout, calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease, and Familial Mediterranean Fever. Here, we present for the first time, two patients suffering from gout being treated with colchicine, who were affected from severe acute respiratory coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) syndrome. Both patients presented with mild symptoms of COVID-19 expressed with myalgias, arthralgias, and sore throat, while laboratory investigations showed only high acute phase reactants. Four weeks later, both patients were free of symptoms with negative SARS-CoV-2 tests and without any complications. To our knowledge, there are no other studies of gout arthritis and SARS-CoV-2 infection published so far. Thus, our preliminary conclusion is that chronic use of colchicine may mitigate the clinical picture and disease course of COVID-19 in gout arthritis patients. Further studies with a large number of patients are needed to confirm the above beneficial effect of colchicine.

Calcified constrictive pericarditis resulting in tamponade in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease with multiorgan involvement, including heart. Pericarditis-the most common cardiac manifestation-occurs in up to 50% of cases, resulting in positive treatment outcomes. Rarely, it evolves to hazardous complications. A 50-year-old woman with SLE in clinical remission, receiving hydroxychloroquine 400 mg/day, presented to us with severe chest pain and low-grade fever. Physical examination revealed a friction rub and decreased breath sounds at the right lung base. Laboratory evaluation demonstrated leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, low C4 levels, and high acute phase reactants. Chest X-ray exhibited cardiomegaly, calcified pericardium, and right pleural effusion, confirmed by CT scan. PPD skin test and IGRA were both negative. Pericardial fluid, blood, and urine cultures for bacteria and fungi, as well as Gram and Ziehl-Neelsen stains were negative. Serological tests for viruses were also negative. The patient was diagnosed with calcified constrictive pericarditis (CP) due to SLE. She was treated with cyclophosphamide and methylprednisolone pulses, without improvement. Her clinical condition deteriorated, developing signs and symptoms compatible with cardiac tamponade (TMP), which was confirmed by Doppler echocardiography. The patient underwent pericardiectomy. A dramatic response was noted and she was discharged with prednisone 50 mg/day and azathioprine 100 mg/day. Thus, we review and discuss the relevant literature of SLE cases with CP or TMP. When an SLE patient presents with CP, infectious causes should be excluded first. To the best of our knowledge, this is the only case of SLE and calcified CP leading to TMP, hence physicians should be aware of this complication.

Use of conventional synthetic and biologic disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs in patients with rheumatic diseases contracting COVID-19: a single-center experience.

To examine whether patients with inflammatory arthritis (IA) treated with conventional synthetic (cs) disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) and/or biologic (b) DMARDs, could be affected from SARS-CoV-2 infection and to explore the COVID-19 disease course and outcome in this population. This is a prospective observational study. During the period February-December 2020, 443 patients with IA who were followed-up in the outpatient arthritis clinic were investigated. All patients were receiving cs and/or bDMARDs. During follow-up, the clinical, laboratory findings, comorbidities and drug side effects were all recorded and the treatment was adjusted or changed according to clinical manifestations and patient's needs. There were 251 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), 101 with psoriatic arthritis (PsA) and 91 with ankylosing spondylitis (AS). We identified 32 patients who contracted COVID-19 (17 RA, 8 PsA, 7 AS). All were in remission and all drugs were discontinued. They presented mild COVID-19 symptoms, expressed mainly with systemic manifestations and sore throat, while six presented olfactory dysfunction and gastrointestinal disturbances, and all of them had a favorable disease course. However, three patients were admitted to the hospital, two of them with respiratory symptoms and pneumonia and were treated appropriately with excellent clinical response and outcome. Patients with IA treated with cs and/or bDMARDs have almost the same disease course with the general population when contract COVID-19.

Therapeutic Options and Cost-Effectiveness for Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: During the last two decades, the therapeutic decisions and strategies for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) management have improved dramatically. Today, the therapeutic armamentarium is significantly augmented, and by using both old and new drugs, remission or low disease activity is a reasonable goal. The use of conventional synthetic (cs) disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) in combination with biologic (b) or targeted synthetic (ts) DMARDs has revolutionized RA treatment. Methotrexate administration is considered fundamental among other csDMARDs for the treatment of RA. It is recommended as the initial drug (monotherapy), or in combination with other csDMARDs, bDMARDs, and tsDMARDs in a step-up strategy. Furthermore, it can be used with other csDMARDs as initial combination-therapy. On the other hand, despite the fact that bDMARDs and ts DMARDs are highly efficacious and can also be used as monotherapy in certain cases, cost-effectiveness is still questionable when compared with csDMARDs. In this direction, the classic argument of utmost importance has to do with the most appropriate treatment strategy that shall be initially applied: csDMARD combination-therapy versus monotherapy, or step-up combinationtherapy with bDMARDs, especially tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFa) blockers. For this reason, a literature review of the most important csDMARDs combination and bDMARDs combination studies has been deployed. RECENT FINDINGS: The results showed that the triple csDMARDs therapy approach is more effective and less expensive. In addition, workers' productivity is higher than any other treatment options for RA. Triple-therapy constitutes a smart, efficacious, and significantly cheaper choice for RA therapeutic management.

Radiological Findings of the Cervical Spine in Rheumatoid Arthritis: What a Rheumatologist Should Know.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting mainly the peripheral skeleton in a symmetrical manner rather than the axial skeleton, but when it occurs it can affect the cervical spine (CS). Although CS involvement is a frequent radiographic finding in RA, the clinical features are scarce, but potentially life-threatening with severe neurological deficits or even death due to brain stem compression. The commonest site of inflammation of the CS is the articulation between C1 and C2 vertebrae, the atlanto-axial region. The radiological finding observed in this region is the atlanto-axial subluxation (AAS). For the evaluation of CS in RA the classical diagnostic technique used mostly is conventional radiography (CR). Since CR does not provide good information regarding synovial inflammation, other imaging modalities are used such as magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography. However, CR is the most valuable tool for screening CS in RA patients. Thus, we reviewed the literature until December 2019 for studies regarding CS radiological manifestations using CR in RA patients. RECENT FINDINGS: We found that the frequency of radiological findings varies substantially, ranging between 0.7-95% in different studies. The commonest radiological feature was the AAS followed by subaxial subluxation. Because CS involvement can often be clinically asymptomatic, its assessment should not be forgotten by physicians and should be assessed using CR which is an easy to perform technique and gives important information as a screening tool.

The lipid paradox in rheumatoid arthritis: the dark horse of the augmented cardiovascular risk.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease characterized by chronic inflammation that, if left untreated, can cause joint destruction and physical impairments. The inflammatory process is systematic, and it is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Over the last years, mortality presents a decreasing trend; still, there is a high burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in RA that seems to be related to coronary atherosclerosis. Chronic inflammation, physical inactivity, and drugs used to treat RA are some of the reasons. Thus, the management of CVD risk is essential and involves the patient's stratification using distinct parameters that include assessment of the blood lipid profile. However, 'dyslipidemia' in RA patients follows a different pattern under the impact of inflammatory processes, while therapies that target the underlying disease change the levels of specific lipid components. In this review, we explore the relationship between blood lipids and inflammation in the so-called ΄lipid paradox΄ in RA, and we present the existing knowledge over the influence of antirheumatic drugs on the lipid profile of RA patients.

Adalimumab-induced myasthenia gravis: case-based review.

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disease characterised by the presence of acetylcholine receptor antibodies and by blocking the transmission of the signal in the neuromuscular junction causing muscle weakness. It can be associated with several autoimmune diseases and certain drugs, between them Etanercept an anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF) agent. A 42-year-old woman with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) refractory to methotrexate, was treated with adalimumab (ADA), a human monoclonal antibody against the TNF, in a dosage scheme of 40 mg every 14 days subcutaneously. The patient responded well to ADA therapy with sustained remission for 18 months when she developed blurred vision and eyelid ptosis of the left eye. The diagnosis of ocular MG was made. ADA has been discontinued and she started a treatment with pyridostigmine showing an excellent response and complete remission within a 2-month period. This is the first report making an association of ADA and ocular MG. Thus, rheumatologists dealing with patients treated with TNF inhibitors should be aware of the possible development of neurological adverse events, among them MG.

Granuloma annulare development in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis treated with tocilizumab: case-based review.

Granuloma annulare (GA) is the most common non-infectious disease. Despite the fact that it is a benign disease, it can be associated with a variety of disorders and certain drugs including biological disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (bDMARDs). A 50-year-old man with a history of rheumatoid arthritis refractory to methotrexate, hydroxychloroquine and infliximab was treated with tocilizumab (TCZ), an interleukin-6 receptor antagonist, 162 mg subcutaneously every week. The patient responded very well to TCZ treatment with a decrease of acute phase reactants and reduction of disease activity score for 28-joints count. However, 3 months later he developed erythematous polycyclic eruptions affecting the lower extremities consistent with a diagnosis of GA which was confirmed by a skin biopsy. TCZ has been discontinued and the patient was treated with prednisone presenting complete resolution of skin manifestations after 4 weeks. This is the first case of GA development during TCZ treatment. Thus, we review the literature and discuss the relevant cases of GA development in patients treated with bDMARDs. When dealing with patients treated with these agents, all physicians should be aware of possible adverse events and the potential development of such complications.

Unmet needs in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis: a long-term observational study from a single university center.

Despite the progress in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis (AS), a significant number of patients do not achieve low disease activity (LDA). The aim of the study is to estimate the size of unmet needs in the treatment of AS in a long-term observational study. Between January 2003 and December 2017, 220 patients with radiographic SpA were evaluated fulfilling the ASAS criteria. They were followed up at predefined times and were naive to biological treatment with anti-tumor necrosis factor agents (anti-TNFs) and the interleukin (IL)-17 inhibitor. NSAIDs, all anti-TNFs and the IL-17 inhibitor secukinumab were used according to the European, United States and Canadian guidelines for AS. During follow-up, several clinical parameters including disease activity scores were recorded. All 220 patients had an active disease and received at least two NSAIDs for 3 months. The anti-TNF of first choice was infliximab-51%, followed by adalimumab-27% and etanercept-22%. During follow-up, 22 patients were excluded from the study (18 lost, 4 never received anti-TNF due to comorbidities). From the rest (198), 12 did not receive anti-TNFs (8 due to sustained LDA on NSAIDs solely and 4 due to treatment denial). Finally, 186 (94%) were treated with anti-TNFs demonstrating sustained long-term LDA. However, 16 patients never achieved LDA despite they received two or three anti-TNFs or the IL-17 inhibitor. Thus, a total of 20 (10.1%) patients never achieved LDA. This is the first study aiming to estimate the gap and the size of unmet needs in AS patients using the international guidelines and recommendations for AS treatment, which is 10.1%.

Conventional radiography of the hands and wrists in rheumatoid arthritis. What a rheumatologist should know and how to interpret the radiological findings.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting the synovial membrane, leading to joint damage and bone destruction. Conventional radiography (CR) of the hands and wrists has been, for many years, the primary imaging modality used to diagnose and monitor RA. On the other hand, many investigators in clinical trials and observational studies used CR of the hands and wrists to demonstrate drug effectiveness and structural damage progression. The purpose of this review is to discuss the evaluation and interpretation of the hands and wrists by CR in RA patients and the radiographic changes occurring in a specific joint. Thus, the literature was reviewed until January 2019 for studies regarding RA radiological evaluation of the hands and wrists, as well as radiological progression using CR. The assessment of joint pathology in RA patients should begin with CR which is the best imaging modality to evaluate any subtle changes occurring at the bone level. Once high-quality radiographs are obtained in appropriate views/projections, then an accurate evaluation can often be made without any further imaging studies. Therefore, CR is a valuable tool for RA screening. It is an easy-to-perform technique and gives important information assisting in differentiating between RA from other arthritides. In contrary CR does not provide good information when early RA changes start to appear, such as synovial inflammation or other soft-tissue structural changes. Nevertheless, it still remains the most commonly used imaging tool in rheumatology and has a number of advantages: it is easily available in most rheumatologists and readily accessible in most patients. It is inexpensive and relatively safe. It provides immediate information and can be interpreted easily by the requested rheumatologist. Finally, the data are reproducible and can be used for serial evaluation and follow-up.

Cochlear involvement in patients with systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases: a clinical and laboratory comparative study.

PURPOSE: Inner ear involvement has been reported in systemic rheumatic disease while detection of cochlin-specific antibodies has been reported in patients with idiopatic sensorineural hearing loss, suggesting cochlin's strong link to autoimmune hearing loss. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to calculate the prevalence of sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) in patients with systemic rheumatic diseases, and to investigate any potential correlation with human antibodies to cochlin. METHODS: Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjogren's syndrome (SS) and systemic sclerosis (SSc) according to the criteria of American College of Rheumatology were included in the study. All patients underwent a complete ear-nose-throat physical examination and audiological evaluation with pure tone audiometry and impedance audiometry. Pure tone average was calculated, taking as a starting point the hearing loss in dB according to the recommendation 02/1 of "Bureau International d' Audiophonologie" (BIAP) so as an average hearing threshold value. Sera of all patients were tested for the presence of IgG antibodies to human cochline (COCH-IgG). Sex and age-matched healthy subjects were included as controls to each group. RESULTS: A total of 133 patients were studied; 60 with RA, 41 with SLE, 24 with SS and 8 with SSc. 61.4% of patients reported vertigo, 41% hyperacousis, 39% hearing loss, 38% tinnitus, 37.9% headache and 2.1% sensation of ear pressure with unremarkable otoscopy. The prevalence of SNHL calculated for patients affected by RA, SLE, SS and SSc was 66.6%, 31.71%, 54.17%, and 75% respectively. The calculated average hearing thresholds value in RA was increased in comparison to SLE (p < 0.05). In addition it was also higher in patients with RA and secondary SS, in comparison to RA patients (p > 0.05). There was statistically significant correlation of average hearing threshold with disease activity score 28 (DAS28) in RA, but no correlation observed with disease activity index (SLEDAI) in SLE. COCH-IgG antibodies were detected in only two samples. The results were compared with those of their respective sex and age-matched healthy subjects. CONCLUSION: Our study revealed increased prevalence of SNHL in patients with systemic autoimmune rheumatic disease but no correlation of hearing loss with COCHIgG antibodies. The mechanism of inner ear damage remains unknown; thus, additional prospective studies will be needed to elucidate its pathogenesis.

Spinal cord stimulation in refractory angina. A systematic review of randomized controlled trials.

OBJECTIVE: Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is an invasive method used for treating patients with refractory angina. Although SCS is recommended by the European Society of Cardiology and American Heart Association (class lib, level of evidence B and C, respectively), the method is used very rarely and data on its effectiveness is limited. The aim of this work was to perform a systematic review of all randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that investigated the effectiveness of SCS as a treatment for refractory angina. METHODS: Medline and Cochrane library databases were searched from their inception to April 2014 for RCTs that investigated the efficacy and safety of SCS in patients with refractory angina. RESULTS: Nine RCTs were included in the systematic review. The included RCTs were categorized into two groups: RCTs comparing SCS either with optimal medical treatment or inactive mode or low stimulation SCS; and those comparing SCS with alternative therapeutic interventions. Follow-up was short-term (1-6 months) in most studies, showing no major complications. Two studies reported a neutral effect regarding mortality. Regarding efficacy, most RCTs were in favour of SCS mainly in the short term. The most recent, multi-centre RCT reported no significant difference compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: RCTs investigating the efficacy of SCS were small and they demonstrated a small effect in angina improvement. Due to great differences in their design the interpretation of the results is complex. Before this method is recommended as a routine therapy for refractory angina, a larger, well-designed, multicentre RCT is needed.